*** Field Manual for the United States Antarctic Program *** From: Rick de Castro [decastro@pacificnet.net] Sent: Sunday, January 10, 1999 8:39 PM To: sar-l@listserv.islandnet.com Cc: sar-l@listserv.islandnet.com Subject: Re: Cold Weather Survival Field Manual for the United States Antarctic Program Revised August 1994 Chapter 1 Extreme Cold Weather Clothing Chapter 2 McMurdo Station Chapter 3 Basic Field-Party Preparation Procedures Chapter 4 Standards of Conduct in the Field Chapter 5 Field-Safety Training Chapter 6 Helicopter Transport Chapter 7 LC-130 Transport Chapter 8 Field Radios Chapter 9 Weather Chapter 10 Snow Shelters Chapter 11 Tents Chapter 12 Rope Use and Care Chapter 13 Stoves Chapter 14 Waste Retrograde Chapter 15 Snowmobiles Chapter 16 Sea Ice Chapter 17 Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue Chapter 18 Roped Travel with Snowmobiles and Sleds in Crevassed Areas Chapter 19 Glacier Travel with Heavy Machinery Chapter 20 Antarctic Navigation Chapter 21 Search and Rescue Chapter 22 Basic Guidelines For All Groups Returning From The Field Appendix A Field Planning Aid Appendix B Emergency Cache and Hut Locations Appendix C Time Line Chart (Example) Appendix D Conversion Tables Appendix E First Aid and Survival Kits Appendix F National Science Foundation Policy on Field Safety in Antarctica Appendix G Glossary Introduction This manual is designed for United States Antarctic Program (USAP) researchers, but contains important information for all USAP personnel who will be working in the Antarctic environment. This includes groups working close to McMurdo Station, as well as groups working in remote locations that require air transport. If you are new in the program, this manual will help prepare you for your experience. Read through it before packing and leaving for Antarctica, as you will find important information regarding clothing issue, extra equipment to take, planning and preparation time in McMurdo, and what to expect in the field. Not only will you be able to anticipate better what to expect upon your arrival, you will know what tasks need to be undertaken immediately, including scheduling your Field Safety Training. In addition, this manual presents an overview of operating procedures used in McMurdo. Reviewing the manual in advance will help you also to become familiar with the terminology used in the Antarctica. Many chapters contain information on the equipment issued and how to use it. The USAP issues a wide variety of equipment, some of which is very specific to polar work, such as the Scott Polar tent. Furthermore, systems that are unique to working in polar environments, such as roped travel with Nansen sleds and snowmobiles in crevassed areas, are discussed. This is not a how to book. Anyone deploying to remote locations in Antarctica should have a strong background in cold-weather survival or, at the very least, employ a safety-survival guide with previous Antarctic experience. Antarctica is not a place to learn cold weather skills. This is a reference manual, and should be taken into the field as it contains detailed information on trouble shooting radios and snowmobiles, and on crevasse travel and rescue techniques. Chapter 1 Extreme Cold Weather Clothing 1.1 USAP Clothing Issue Following are two lists of extreme cold weather (ECW) issue clothing provided to USAP grantees and ASA deep-field staff. Clothing will be issued at the Clothing Distribution Center (CDC) in Christchurch, New Zealand, before deployment to Antarctica. Grantees Only Clothing Issue All grantees working at McMurdo Station, in the Dry Valleys, in the deep field, and at South Pole Station will receive this clothing issue. This does not include ship-based personnel deploying through Christchurch. 2 Bag, Clothing 1 Balaclava 1 Bearpaws 1 Boot, Bunny 1 Bottle, Water, 32 oz. Nalgene 1 Glove, Leather Thinsulate 2 Glove, Polypro 1 Glove, Ski 1 Goggles, Smith Caribou 1 Hat, Pile/Knit 1 Jacket, Pile Polar-Tec 300 1 Jacket, Wind 1 Mitten, Kodalite 1 Mitten, Leather 1 Mitten, Wool 1 Neck Gaiter 1 Pants, Pile Bib 1 Pants, Wind Bib 1 Parka, Red 6 Sock, Wool 1 Thermal Bottom, Expedition-Weight 1 Thermal Bottom, Thermax 1 Thermal Top, Expedition-Weight 1 Thermal Top, Thermax 1 Coverall, Bunny Suit--on request Deep-Field Support Personnel Clothing Issue 2 Bag, Clothing 1 Balaclava/Wind Stopper 1 Bearpaws 1 Bib Overalls, Carhart 1 Boot, Bunny 1 Bottle, Water, 32 oz. Nalgene 1 Coverall, Bunny Suit 2 Glove, Leather w/Thinsulite Lining 2 Glove, Polypro 1 Glove, Ski 1 Goggles, Smith Caribou 1 Hat, Yazoo 1 Jacket, Carhart 1 Jacket, Pile Polar-Tec 300 1 Jacket, Wind Columbia 2 Mitten, Kodalite 1 Mitten, Leather 1 Mitten, Wool 1 Neck Gaiter 1 Pants, Pile Bib 1 Pants, Wind Bib 1 Parka, Carhart Siberian Arctic 6 Sock, Wool 1 Sunglasses 1 Thermal Bottom, Expedition-Weight 1 Thermal Bottom, Thermax 1 Thermal Top, Expedition-Weight 1 Therma Top, Thermax When you get your issue gear, make sure you try on all the items to ensure that they fit properly and are free of defects. Try all of the garments on together just as you would wear them in the field. Each garment must fit over the ones underneath it and be roomy enough to allow a full range of motion, yet be snug enough that it isn't drafty. When sorting through your issue clothing, consider where you will be going and what types of activities you are likely to engage in. You may also want to supplement this gear or make substitutions with personal equipment that you bring from home. 1.2 Dressing for the Cold: Layering In general, the rule of thumb for living in a cold environment is to get lots of insulation between you and the environment when it's cold, and to remove that insulation layer by layer when you get warmer. You need a clothing system that allows you to shed layers quickly and easily before you get damp from perspiration. Several thinner garmets will serve this purpose better than one bulky overcoat. 1.2a Long Underwear Your first layer should be your long underwear. It should fit snugly against your skin and be made of a nonabsorbent material. This layer works by repelling water and keeping your skin dry. Synthetic fabrics such as polypropylene, Thermax, or Capilene work the best, whereas wool and silk are the best natural fibers. Cotton is a poor choice because it absorbs water and holds it next to your skin where it will cool you off. 1.2b Mid Layers The next layers are important because they serve to absorb the moisture out of your long underwear and transport it to the environment through evaporation. Once again, synthetics are best here, but wool is a good substitute. Shirts, sweaters and trousers are what you will likely be wearing when you are active. Pay close attention to the fit as the mid layers work by trapping air and preventing it from circulating and carrying away your body heat. 1.2c Insulation Layer Thickness is warmth. For sedentary activities or extremely cold conditions, an outer garment with several inches of loft is recommended. Down is unsurpassed for its warmth-to-weight ratio and is the preferred choice of insulation in dry climates like Antarctica. Unfortunately, down loses most of its loft when wet and takes a long time to dry, so you must be careful to avoid getting down garments wet. Synthetic insulations such as Polarguard, Holofill, or Thinsulate are better choices for work in potentially wet conditions. 1.2d Shell Layer Perhaps the most important part of your layering system, and probably the most used besides your long underwear, is your windshell. Studies conducted by Recreational Equipment Co-Op show that in still air, windshells worn over any garment can add up to 25 degrees of warmth. In windy conditions, windshells can increase warmth by 50 degrees or more. Windshells can be broken down into two categories: (1) those made out of windproof but non-waterproof fabrics and (2) those made out of waterproof fabrics, both the breathable and non-breathable varieties. If you don't expect to be around water or wet snow, then the non-waterproof fabrics are superior because they allow your perspiration to escape more easily. For potentially wet conditions, the waterproof/breathable fabrics such as Gore-Tex are a good compromise. 1.3 Cold Weather Clothing Accessories Conditions in Antarctica are frequently extreme. Remember that you need to pay particular attention to protect your head, neck, and extremities with layers comparable to your other clothing. If you'll be doing work that requires much use of your hands, consider bringing inexpensive chemical heat packs for inside your gloves and mittens. For work that must be done without heavy gloves or mittens (for dexterity), use a pair of silk or cotton gloves or thermal liner gloves. 1.4 Supplemental Clothing You may wish to supplement the issued field clothing with commercial clothing items designed for the cold, thus making your stay in the field more comfortable. The following items are suggested: Additional pairs of expedition-weight Polypropylene Long Underwear Over Mitts (Synthetic) Climbing Boots (Optional) Chapter 2 McMurdo Station After your plane lands in Antarctica, a shuttle will transport you from the airfield to the McMurdo Station Chalet, which is the administrative building for the National Science Foundation (NSF) and for the NSF support contractor: Antarctic Support Associates (ASA). Chalet personnel will give you an orientation briefing, assign housing, and arrange a date for your science meeting. A map of McMurdo Station is inside the back cover of this manual. 2.1 McMurdo Housing Housing in McMurdo is in dormitories. Both two-person and bunk rooms are available; there is no guarantee of what type of room you will be assigned. From late October through early November and from late January through early February, housing areas are crowded. You'll receive your housing assignments from the Chalet administrative staff, both upon arrival in McMurdo and when returning from the field. 2.2 McMurdo Science Meetings Each science group will have a meeting the day after arriving in McMurdo. Representatives from the NSF and from various ASA and Naval Support Force, Antarctica (NSFA) departments will meet with your group to discuss logistical support for the season. During the science meeting, you'll receive information on the status of your cargo and equipment. You'll also discuss your objectives for the season and meet the McMurdo personnel who will help support your research project. 2.3 McMurdo Science Support Departments Berg Field Center (BFC): The BFC issues equipment and food to field parties, coordinates daily helicopter logistics, and runs the Field Safety Training Program (FSTP). After your initial science meeting, it's best to meet with the BFC supervisor to schedule a Field Safety Training course and equipment shakedown, and to locate your "cage space." Crary Science and Engineering Center (CSEC): The CSEC houses the McMurdo science laboratory facilities. Specialized laboratories, computer facilities, the Aquarium, the Dive Locker, and office space are allocated within the CSEC. The CSEC staff coordinates laboratory support for science groups, as well as fish hut movements, construction requests, and aquarium space requirements. Scientific equipment (including all items identified in your SIP for procurement) is issued from the CSEC stockroom. Other facilities in the CSEC include a science library, a seminar room, and a small field staging area. Operations Coordinator, Helicopter: The Operations Coordinator, Helicopter, develops the daily helicopter flight schedule, communicates daily with all helo-supported field groups, and is the point-of-contact for all helo-supported field camp resupply requests. The Coordinator is located in Building 165 (Mac Center). Mechanical Equipment Center (MEC): The MEC issues and maintains snowmobiles, generator sets, gas-powered ice augers, rock drills, chain saws, portable dive compressors, and 12-V batteries and battery chargers. The MEC also maintains a fleet of "pool" pickups and tracked vehicles for use by the science community, and provides training and a field maintenance course for issued equipment. Antarctic Driver's Licenses are obtained from the MEC. You must have a valid Driver's License from your home state in order to receive an "Antarctic Driver's License" and drive in McMurdo. To be issued an Antarctic Driver's License, you must attend a briefing on and test drive MEC-issued vehicles. Operations Coordinator, Fixed-Wing Aircraft: The Operations Coordinator, Fixed-Wing, is the point-of-contact for all fixed-wing aircraft concerns. This person helps you plan cargo loads for put-in flights, plans the daily fixed-wing flight schedule, communicates daily with field parties, and coordinates all resupply and schedule changes for remote, fixed-wing-supported field groups. The coordinator is located in Building 58. . Science Construction Support: All science construction support requests should be listed on your SIP; however, if you have late-identified (i.e., while in Antarctica) construction requests, submit a work order to the CSEC Supervisor. On-ice construction support requests will require approval by the resident NSF representative. Science Cargo: If you have questions about the arrival, shipment, or retrograde of your cargo, contact the Science Cargo Coordinator, who is located in Building 193. Science Cargo is responsible for handling all grantee cargo and is the principal contact with the military cargo system. Chapter 3 Basic Field-Party Preparation Procedures A field party is a USAP "group" that has been assigned a "S" or "T" number and is working outside of the local McMurdo/South Pole Station areas. This chapter provides the basic preparation procedures to be carried out by all field parties (i.e., local sea ice, helicopter-supported, and LC-130-supported groups) after arriving in McMurdo. Chapter 6: Helicopter Transport and Chapter 7: LC-130 Transport also provide information specifically for helicopter-supported and LC-130 supported groups. Different rules, timetables, and guidelines apply for each type of transport into the field. It will take a minimum of one week in McMurdo to prepare the logistics for your field camp put-in. 3.1 Field Communications: Radios You will need to make an appointment with MacElex's Electronics (ET) shop (first floor of Building 165, Mac Center) to schedule a time to pick up your radios and attend a demonstration class. Before MacElex will issue radios, a Frequency Assignment Plan must be obtained from the Field Operations Communication Center (FOCC), which is located on the second floor of Building 165. The FOCC call sign is MACOPS. The FOCC staff will provide you with the information you will need to make radio contact from the field. The FOCC staff will also ask you when you wish to schedule your daily safety check-in times, as well when you will leave McMurdo for the field and when you will return to McMurdo from the field. Please note that you will need to have your radios with you when you attend the Field Safety Training course. After your field season, return your radios to MacElex's ET shop. There is no other "drop off" location for returned radios. In summary: 1. Make an appointment with the MacElex ET shop to pick up your radios. 2. Obtain a Frequency Assignment Plan from the FOCC and discuss field radio contact plans with the FOCC staff. 3. Pick up your radio(s) from MacElex and attend a demonstration. 4. Field test your radio(s) prior to your field season--either during the Field Safety Training course or during an equipment shakedown. 5. Return your radio(s) to MacElex's ET shop at the end of your field season. 3.2 Field-Equipment Preparation Space Each group that requests a substantial amount of field equipment from the BFC is issued a "cage space." Locked cages are on the ground floor of both the BFC and Science Cargo buildings and must be shared either concurrently or consecutively with different groups. Space is limited, so remember when you go into the field someone else may use the space you were working in. Your cage location and lock combination will be given to you at the science meeting. An introduction to the BFC will be conducted immediately after your science meeting. Field equipment requested in your Support Information Package (SIP) will be prestaged in your cage. Please note that the BFC has a limited amount of secured storage for items you may wish to leave in McMurdo while you are in the field. 3.3 Field-Safety Training All new personnel in the USAP, regardless of their skill level and experience, must attend an overnight two-day field-safety course that includes cold weather camping skills, cold weather first aid, and emergency shelter building. For deep-field groups, this requirement is in addition to the equipment shakedown. The schedule for your training will be arranged during your introductory meeting at the BFC. 3.4 Food for Field Parties Food is issued to USAP field parties who are working and living at remote locations. Use the Food Room "planning sheet" (given out during the science meeting) to select food for your group. The Food Room staff will help you to determine quantities needed, but it is important that the entire field party review the list and make requests on this form. The Food Room staff will help plan food amounts for both put-in and resupply. New groups should rely on the Food Room staff's experience and use the resupply system. It is difficult to keep foods frozen in the Dry Valleys. Some groups have initially taken an entire season's supply of food into the field, where much of it spoiled. Please let the Food Room staff help you in this planning process. When planning food for the season, we suggest you use regular food stock to cover the length of time you expect to be in the field. Take an emergency back-up of 2 to 4 weeks' dehydrated food (depending on how remote the location) in case the pull-put flight is delayed because of weather or some other problem. 3.4a Packing Food After your group has selected food for the field, designate one person to be in charge of organizing the food for camp put-in. It will take a minimum of one entire day to gather, package, and weigh the (boxes of) food for your group. 3.5 Field Equipment Assign one person from your group to survey your issued field equipment inventory to ensure that it is complete. Notify the BFC if there are any discrepancies. Select one person to be your BFC point-of- contact. He/she will be the only person from your group to make changes, return, or exchange your issued field equipment. 3.5a Packing Equipment There are different ways to pack cargo for helicopter and LC-130 put-ins. Please refer to Chapter 6: Helicopter Transport and Chapter 7: LC-130 Transport for specific information. 3.6 Mechanical Equipment A minimum of 48 hours advance notice is required for the MEC to prepare your mechanical equipment for all flight operations. Any time needed for equipment repair after your shakedown will be in addition to this time. A half-day field maintenance training should be completed before your equipment shakedown. Schedule this field maintenance training with the MEC Supervisor or Lead Snowmobile Mechanic. A standardized spare parts issue is provided with each piece of MEC equipment. A representative from your group should survey the spare parts issue and make adjustments as necessary. Operator training for any vehicle is mandatory and should be scheduled through the MEC prior to your deployment to the field. 3.7 Field-Camp Liquor Rations Alcohol is rationed. One case of beer or one bottle of liquor or two bottles of wine may be purchased per person per week. Forms for field camp liquor rations are available from the ASA administration personnel located in the Chalet. Return your completed ration form with exact cash (no checks) to the Chalet personnel. They will contact NSFA/MWR (Morale, Welfare, and Recreation) to make an appointment to pick up your ration an will notify you of the appointment time. Make sure to pick up your liquor ration early prior to departing for the field so that it can be packed with the rest of your cargo. 3.8 Rock Boxes If rock boxes are requested for sample retrograde, they will need to be prepared prior to field camp put-in. Preparations include banding around the circumference of each box and stenciling your name and university address on top. You can use the empty boxes for camp put-in by filling them with food and equipment. Chapter 4 Standards of Conduct in the Field The Principal Investigator (PI) or field-team leader of each research group is responsible for ensuring that his/her group acts responsibly in the field. All field personnel should read the Antarctic Conservation Act (Document No. NSF 89-59) and the United States Antarctic Program (USAP) Personnel Manual (Document No. NSF 90-71, rev. 6-93). Both documents are available from the National Science Foundation (NSF). Specially Protected Areas (SPA) are places of unusual scientific or historic interest. Entry into these areas is prohibited unless there is a scientific purpose. To enter one of these areas, you must obtain a permit from the NSF. To apply for a permit, contact the NSF/OPP prior to leaving for Antarctica. Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) are places where scientific work is being conducted (or planned) and there is a risk of interference. Permits are not always required for entry into these sites and, in some cases, permission may be obtained in McMurdo from the NSF Representative. However, you should apply for permits before leaving for Antarctica. All entrants must read and comply with the management plan specific for each site. Violation of the regulations for Specially Protected Areas and Sites of Special Scientific Interest may result in a $10,000 fine or imprisonment for up to one year. 4.1 Appropriate Field Conduct in Antarctica USAP scientific and operational teams that are deployed to sites remote from USAP main stations shall conduct their activities in a safe manner. The field-party leader shall be responsible for the conduct of all team members in the field and shall ensure that each team member is familiar with the risks involved and proficient in dealing with those risks. GUIDELINES FOR PERSONAL CONDUCT Do not disturb wildlife. Do not litter. Do not introduce plants or animals into the Antarctic. Do not collect eggs, fossils, or plants without a permit. Do not enter any Specially Protected Area. Avoid Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Avoid interference with scientific work. Do not disturb Antarctic historic monuments. Leave only footprints. Be environmentally responsible. Chapter 5 Field-Safety Training 5.1 Field-Safety Training Requirements Field-safety training and equipment shakedowns must be scheduled during your stay in McMurdo prior to your field deployment. All new personnel-regardless of their skill level and experience-must complete an overnight two-day field safety course that includes cold weather camping skills, cold weather first aid, and emergency shelter building. For deep-field groups, this requirement is in addition to the equipment shakedown trip. We strongly advise that deep-field groups include a safety guide/mountaineer who has previous Antarctic "deep- field" experience. This person should have considerable crevasse rescue experience, back country medical training, and Union Internationale Des Association De Guides De Montagne (UAIGM) or equivalent guide experience. Training and shakedown time in McMurdo is intended to add some knowledge to your group's skill level. Training includes how to use some equipment and systems that are unique to working in polar environments, such as roped travel with Nansen sleds through crevassed areas, and setting up and securing polar tents in high wind. This training is not intended to teach novices "how to be mountaineers" in two days. Remote groups working in the field without a mountaineer/safety guide must demonstrate an acceptable level of proficiency as follows: In glacial terrain, each member must be able to hold a fall, put in equalized anchors, escape from the system, rappel to the victim, improvise a chest harness, prussik out of a crevasse, prepare the crevasse edge, rescue a victim with a 2:1, 3:1 or 6:1 rope hoist, and be able to perform "advanced first aid." Each field group must do an overnight equipment shakedown trip. This is mandatory and will be tailored to your group's specific needs. The equipment shakedown and field-safety training course are combined in one overnight course for Dry Valley groups. Remote groups must plan for three to four days of field-safety training/equipment shakedown in McMurdo prior to field deployment. 5.2 Field-Safety Course Descriptions Snowcraft I Snowcraft I is an overnight course designed to familiarize personnel with cold weather camping procedures. Topics are addressed at the fundamental level and assume no previous knowledge of outdoor skills. The topics covered include cold injury prevention and treatment, terrain awareness and hazard analysis (crevasses, weather, emergency scenarios), layering and thermal regulation, snow shelters and use of field stoves, ski travel, ice axe introduction, environmental awareness (clean camping techniques), and movement on snow. Snowcraft II The Snowcraft II course is a review of cold weather camping procedures, as well as an introduction to basic mountaineering techniques. The course is designed for science parties and support personnel who will be working in glacial terrain and may be exposed to crevasse danger. This course builds on a pre-existing base of outdoor skills gained by personnel who have attended Snowcraft I training, or other outdoor training programs. Topics include basic crampon technique, self-arrest and use of the ice axe, roping up and roped travel techniques, crevasse rescue self-rescue and pulley systems), terrain awareness (walking tour through crevassed terrain), and overnight shelters. Crevasse Rescue Crevasse rescue is a multi-day course that builds on the basic glacier skills learned in Snowcraft II. The course is designed to teach and demonstrate the acceptable level of proficiency of a glacier traveler. Each member must be able to hold a fall, put in equalized anchors, escape from the system, rappel to the victim, improvise a chest harness, prussik out of the crevasse, prepare the crevasse edge, and rescue the victim with a 2:1, 3:1, or 6:1 rope hoist. The course can also be tailored to address roped skidoo travel and skidoo extraction. Dry Valleys The Dry Valleys simulation course is designed to familiarize personnel with the unique field conditions and survival scenarios posed by the Dry Valleys environment. The course is taught at a basic level and focuses on camping, movement, and emergency procedures in a rocky, windy, dry-cold environment. Topics covered include campsite evaluation, knots and anchors, use of stoves and radios, cold injuries and a review of field first aid, walking on scree and steep snow, environmental impacts, and helicopter put-in procedures. Field Party Shakedown This is a mobile course designed to test the equipment issued to your group, and to offer a review of the travel and camp procedures that you intend to use. This two to three-day course can be taught by either FSTP staff or your group's field mountaineer (when the mountaineer's qualifications meet or exceed those required of FSTP staff); generally, the field mountaineer and FSTP staff work together on group instruction. This course assumes previous field experience in Antarctica or comparable regions and does not address the fundamental subjects covered in Snowcraft I (the course may be combined with the icefall phase of Snowcraft II). The topics covered vary from group to group and may include sledging and the use of snowmobiles, rope systems for glacial terrain, crevasse rescue, campsite evaluation, environmental impacts, and radio procedures. Sea Ice This is a one-day course designed for all personnel working on or crossing over the sea ice. Topics are taught at a fundamental level and assume no previous knowledge of sea ice conditions or cold weather survival skills. The topics covered include ice dynamics (the type and nature of ice cracks), crack profile and the use of Kovacs augers for profiling, safe crossing standards for vehicles, alternative shelters, the use of camp stoves, radio communications, and check-out/check-in procedures. High Altitude Lecture/Demonstration This lecture/demonstration is designed to familiarize personnel going to high elevations on the continent with altitude sickness--a potentially lethal disorder that is often preventable. This presentation is available to all personnel going above eight thousand (8,000) feet for more than one day. Taught at a basic level, the lecture's goal is to give personnel a working knowledge of the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of acute mountain sickness and high altitude pulmonary and cerebral edema. The instructor will focus on actions that contribute to successful acclimatization and will also discuss possible responses to altitude-related emergencies, including evacuation. This lecture will be tailored to address any special circumstances presented by the mountain or region that personnel are bound for. In addition, any field parties checking out a Gamov Bag, which is a portable pressure vessel used for the treatment of acute mountain sickness, will be given a demonstration of its operation and uses. Winter-Over Training Winter-Over Training is a one-day course designed to familiarize personnel with cold weather hazards, area familiarization, flagged routes, and emergency shelters. Topics are addressed at the fundamental level and assume no previous knowledge of outdoor skills. The topics covered include cold weather injury prevention and treatment, terrain awareness and hazard analysis (crevasses, cold weather, emergency scenarios), layering and thermal regulation, emergency shelter locations, lighting stoves and preways, flagged route familiarization, and movement on snow. Air Crew Field Training This is a three-day course for helicopter crews and a two-day course for LC-130 crews. Both courses will involve an overnight in the field using survival equipment similar to that provided on the aircraft. The helicopter crews receive additional sea ice and Dry Valley exercises. Courses are designed to familiarize aircrews with the specific equipment, tools, and techniques for emergency overnighting. Topics covered include terrain awareness and hazard analysis (crevasses, cold weather, emergency scenarios), layering and thermal regulation, cold injury first aid, emergency shelters, and lighting stoves. Chapter 6 Helicopter Transport The following information will help you prepare for your helicopter put-in, resupply, and pull-out. 6.1 Preparations in McMurdo 6.1a General Cargo Before a realistic flight schedule for your field work is made, identify all your cargo and determine actual weights and cubes of all field and scientific equipment, food, fuel, and personal gear. It is important to remember that both the weights and cubes of your cargo must be considered when planning each trip. (See "Appendix A" for weight and cube information.) The maximum number of passengers per trip is five. The maximum preferred weight including passengers and cargo per flight is 1,600 pounds (each passenger is considered to weigh 200 pounds). The Berg Field Center (BFC) staff is trained to assist you in all aspects of preparation for deployment into the field by helicopter. A BFC staff member will be assigned to work with your group to help adjust cargo loads for each flight. Remember to allow weights and cubes for survival bags on all flights that have passengers. A standard issue survival bag weighs 75 pounds. On camp put-in and camp move flights, camping equipment (including sleeping bags, tents, stove, fuel, and food) may be considered as survival gear on passenger flights. 6.1b Hazardous Cargo All hazardous equipment must be packaged and flown in accordance with military regulations. A listing of common hazardous equipment is in Appendix A. Identify any and all hazardous equipment in your field supplies, including science supplies, BFC equipment, and MEC equipment. Put it together in one pile in your cage, and give a list of these items to the BFC. The BFC staff will turn your hazardous cargo over to Science Cargo. It is the responsibility of Science Cargo to package all hazardous materials in accordance with military regulations. The BFC staff will ensure that your hazardous equipment is on your flight. When transporting hazardous equipment from one field site to another, make sure to coordinate this with the Operations Coordinator, Helicopter. Save all hazardous shipping containers and reuse them for transporting hazardous items in the containers. Take a few gallons of "purging fuel" into the field to use for rinsing empty fuel containers before helicopter transport. Burn off excess fuel in stoves before transport, and only transport fuel in certified containers. Do not purge stoves -- it ruins them! Make sure to point out the hazardous equipment to the Crew Chief when he/she comes to pick you up. Hazardous equipment is stored in specific areas in the helicopter. 6.1c Flight Schedules The Operations Coordinator, Helicopter, develops the daily flight schedule, makes daily communication with all helicopter-supported field groups, and is your point-of- contact for all resupply requests. This person is experienced in planning flight schedules and will assist you in planning a realistic schedule once you have identified, weighed, and prioritized your cargo, including hazardous equipment. The Operations Coordinator, Helicopter, is located in the Helicopter Operations Center in Building 165. Flight requests must be submitted three days prior to the flight. When planning your put-in schedule, make sure you leave one person in McMurdo to accompany the last put-in flight. Put-in goes much smoother when there is a field-team member available to ensure that all of your equipment gets into the field. 6.1d Estimated Flight Times Use the following flight-time estimates (one-way) to plan for flights: Allen Hills 1 hour Cape Crozier 35 minutes Cape Bird 40 minutes Dry Valleys 45 minutes to 1 hour Koettlitz Glacier 30 minutes Marble Point 30 minutes Minna Bluff 30 minutes Mount Erebus 30 minutes 6.2 Preparing for the Put-In 6.2a Staging Cargo Stage put-in and resupply items in your cage. Using a resupply system for food, fuel, and consumable items will reduce the helicopter hours on your initial put-in. You must prepare an inventory of all the resupply boxes you are staging, with each box numbered in some way (e.g., Box #1, Box #2), and a list of what is in each box. Give this information to the BFC, and take this inventory with you into the field. By following this plan, it will be easy for you to pass resupply information to the Operations Coordinator, Helicopter. You simply have to ask for Box #1 in your cage. If items in a resupply box are hazardous, place them in a separate box, clearly marked "Box #1 Hazardous." The BFC staff will ensure that hazardous boxes get to Science Cargo and are properly packaged for the resupply flight. 6.2b Two Days Prior to Your Flight Turn in a list of all your hazardous cargo to the BFC. 6.2c The Day Prior to Your Flight Stage your equipment at the BFC in piles according to flights (i.e., all items for the first flight in one pile, all items for the second flight in another pile, etc.). Each pile should be labeled clearly. Items that do not fit into standard containers or cartons should have all loose parts securely fastened. Individual items and their total weight should be listed on the helicopter support request. Again, these weights should be measured on a scale, not estimated. 6.2d The Day of Your Flight Check the flight schedule early. This schedule will be on the computer and posted in the Galley, CSEC, or Chalet. Call or report to the BFC at 7:45 a.m. From then until flight time, the BFC needs to know where your group is in case of flight schedule changes. Just before your flight, the BFC will need help loading your equipment into the truck for movement to the helicopter pad. You must be at the helicopter pad 30 minutes prior to the flight. This means personnel and all equipment must be there by that time. 6.2e Clothing for the Flight The following items must be worn or carried with you during the flight: Bunny boots or plastic insulated climbing boots Thermal insulated long underwear (top and bottom) Wind pants with pile pants underneath Pile jacket Parka with hood or jacket layering system Mittens or gloves with liners Bear paws (shove them in your pocket or have them close by) Hat Sunglasses Additional Items to Pack for Day Trips Sunscreen Water bottle Thermos with hot liquid High energy food Ear plugs Keep in mind that there is a chance you may get stuck in the field overnight. You will be dropped off with survival bags, but you'd be wise to pack some extra food (e.g., chocolate/trail mix) and extra warm clothes. 6.2f Day Trips If you plan to be left in the field for the day you must have at least two people, survival bags, proper clothing, and a radio. 6.3 In the Field 6.3a When You Board the Helicopter At least one person in your group will get a headset for communication with the pilot. Do not talk to the pilot during take-off or landing. Photography opportunities are available in flight. Talk to the pilot before the flight to make seating arrangements, etc. Give an accurate estimate of ground time. If the helicopter is late, a Search and Rescue could be launched. 6.3b Helicopter Loading and Unloading The Crew Chief is responsible for placing cargo inside the helicopter. You should assist the BFC Helicopter person in staging your gear next to the helicopter for loading. In the field, you must unload and move your equipment away from the helicopter before it takes off. When the rotors are running, the Crew Chief will load and unload all items over five feet long. 6.3c Radio Equipment For put-in, you must have the following radio equipment: Radio(s) Handsets Antennas Batteries and recharging capabilities for the duration of your stay in the field Back up radio (complete) After the helicopter crew drops you off and before they can leave you in the field, you must establish communications with McMurdo. If you cannot establish communication, you'll be flown back to McMurdo. 6.3d Daily Communications Every group must have daily radio contact with the Field Operation Communication Center (FOCC) in McMurdo. In cases where the radio contact with McMurdo is poor, you may relay between another field group or Scott Base. (See Chapter 8: Field Radios for more detailed information.) Each morning at 8:00 a.m., the Operations Coordinator, Helicopter, or a contact person in the FOCC has radio communications with all helicopter-supported groups in the Dry Valleys and Ross Island. The day's flight schedule, weather, resupply, and other information is passed. 6.3e Field Resupply All resupply requests from the field must first be passed to the Operations Coordinator, Helicopter. In camps that have phone access to McMurdo, it is tempting to call individual departments for resupply information. However, this creates a problem in our system if the information is not relayed to the Operations Coordinator, Helicopter, and the resupply is not figured into the flight schedule. Remember to first pass along all resupply information to the Operations Coordinator, Helicopter. 6.3f Schedule Changes New flight requests and changes to schedules need to be submitted two to three days prior to the flight. You may pass written requests to the Operations Coordinator, Helicopter, via the flight crew and verbal requests over the radio. Before camp put-in, it is advisable to give the Operations Coordinator, Helicopter, a plan of your entire season from put-in to pull-out. This plan should include estimated dates for camp moves, day trips, close support, and resupply. 6.3g Retrograde from the Field The most efficient way to retrograde material from the field is to use resupply flights, camp moves, and day-use helicopter flights to retrograde waste and extra field gear. This will eliminate the need for excessive dedicated flights for your pull-out. During the daily radio schedule with the Operations Coordinator, Helicopter, you can pass on information concerning retrograde so it can be incorporated into the flight. Remember that the helicopters can retrograde sling loads back to McMurdo, so don't let packaging, boxes, and barrels pile up at camp... Retrograde it early! Please refer to Chapter 14: Waste Retrograde for proper packaging and labeling of retrograde items. 6.4 Camp Pull-Out 6.4a Personnel and Cargo If you have retrograded material and equipment throughout the season, your camp pull-out should be relatively easy. It's best to leave two team members in the field to accompany the last pull-out flight. They can ensure that all the equipment is picked up and that nothing blows away. 6.4b Pull-Out Schedule Coordinate your pull-out schedule with the Operations Coordinator, Helicopter. 6.5 Helicopter Safety Guidelines NEVER approach a helicopter until you receive a thumbs-up signal from the pilot or crewman. NEVER walk near the tail rotor. Always approach from the front of the helicopter. Carry long loads such as bamboo poles, Scott tents, or survey rods low and level to the ground. Remain seated with seat belts fastened at all times. Wear cranial helmets. Do not smoke in or near the helicopter. Assume the crash position when warned by the Crew Chief. In the event of an emergency, remain in the aircraft until all motion has stopped. Know the location and operation of emergency exits. Know the location of first-aid kits . ALWAYS obey the Crew Chief's orders. Know the location of aircraft survival equipment. Any movement on the Helicopter Pad must be authorized by Maintenance Control in the Helo Hangar. * [See figure Helo 1] * [See figure Helo 2] 6.6 Helicopter Planning Information Planning Information for Navy Helicopters (HH-1N) Cargo Hatch Door Size 7'8" x 4'2" Cargo Compartment Size 7'8" x 4'2" x 7'11" Cargo Space Size 220 cu ft Maximum Internal Load 1,600 lb Maximum Internal/External Load 2,000 lb Maximum External Load 2,000 lb Maximum Passengers 5 Normal Helicopter Flight Range 200 NM (100 NM Radius) Flight Range W/ Auxiliary Tank 360 NM (180 NM Radius) Maximum Altitude 15,000 ft Note: Helicopters normally provide support to field parties within 150 nautical miles of McMurdo and Marble Point. Chapter 7 LC-130 Transport * [See figure LC 1301] 7.1 Planning for LC-130 Transport to the Field Five LC-130 aircraft (ski-equipped Hercules) are used for remote field party put-ins. Each aircraft has a different operating weight. The operating weights can differ as much as 2,000 pounds between aircraft. This fact poses a problem for planning cargo loads for the put-in flight. You will not know until the day of your flight which aircraft you will be flying on and, therefore, what the aircraft operating weight will be. Contact the Fixed-Wing Operations Coordinator for load-planning advice. Be flexible and be prepared to switch from one put-in flight to two put-in flights. Before put-in, you can incorporate an air drop of fuel and supplies with your aerial reconnaissance (recce) flight to the region. This may reduce your overall weight to a "One Flight Put-In." To prepare for more than one put-in flight, you must plan to put enough food, fuel, and equipment on the first flight in case the second flight is delayed. There have been cases where a field party waited two weeks for a second flight that was supposed to arrive on the same day as the first flight. Be flexible and develop alternative plans for your field work. Plan your put-in loads so you can do field work if the second flight is delayed. We suggest that on the first flight you take half of your food, half of your fuel, and half of your snowmobile issue, in addition to your science equipment. This way you can start working in the field if there is a delay in the second flight. 7.2 Preparing for Camp Put-In 7.2a Aerial Reconnaissance An aerial reconnaissance (recce) is recommended for many field parties to 1) determine landing site options, 2) select traverse routes, and 3) inspect the area for crevasses. Airdrops and ski drags are authorized on recce flights. Recce flights are useful for reducing put-in weights. Food and fuel can be air-dropped during the recce at the proposed put-in site or at resupply sites along the route. Note: Each bundle of food or fuel that is airdropped has approximately 200 pounds of assorted equipment that must be returned to McMurdo (i.e., parachute, straps, cardboard, and plywood). The recce flight will be conducted at various altitudes down to 200 feet to look for crevasses and other surface hazards. Before the reece flight, coordinate with the Polar Transport Aircraft Commander (PTAC) to ensure that one field-team member is placed on the flight deck and in communication (via headphones) with the pilots during the recce phase of flight to assist in selecting the optimum landing site for put-in. Everyone on the aircraft should use all available windows to look for crevasses along the proposed route or campsite. Sometimes the "focused" view of a porthole will allow the detection of a crevasse that might be overlooked by those on the flight deck with the "big picture." As for all Antarctic flights, you will need to wear your Extreme Cold Weather (ECW) gear and carry your emergency bag of spare clothing. You should consider taking maps, cameras, and binoculars on your recce flight. If aerial photos are desired, contact the Fixed-Wing Operations Coordinator. Please note that mapping quality photography is only available if planned in advance of the field season. 7.2b Flight Schedules The Fixed-Wing Operations Coordinator develops the daily LC-130 flight schedule, makes daily communications with all LC-130 remote field camps, and is your point-of-contact for any LC-130 questions, schedule changes, and resupply information once in the field. All schedules and schedule changes must be submitted at least 72 hours in advance. 7.2c Movement Control Center (MCC) Briefing Schedule a briefing at the MCC. MCC personnel will give you an overview of the cargo system and discuss packaging and documentation of cargo to and from the field, including hazardous materials. 7.2d Equipment Packing When packing your equipment for LC-130 put-in, you should put essential camp set-up items together and make them easily accessible. The weather may be marginal during your put-in, and it's difficult to unpack and sort through equipment without having some of it blow away. Make sure all essential life saving equipment is on your first put-in flight. Do not forget radios, sleeping bags, stoves, fuel, matches, food, and tents. Boxes, triwalls, banding equipment, and pallets are available in the Science Cargo building (Building 73). 7.2e General Cargo All cargo must be turned over to Science Cargo at least 48 hours prior to the flight. Science Cargo personnel will help you weigh boxes once they are packed. You must mark each box with its weight and cube. The only items allowed for loose load are snowmobiles and Nansen sleds. Science Cargo will turn all your cargo (including hazardous) over to the Cargo Park with the proper documentation. The Cargo Park is responsible for palletizing all cargo for LC-130 flights and then turning the cargo over to Strip Cargo. Strip Cargo is responsible for getting cargo onto the proper flight. 7.2f Hazardous Cargo All hazardous cargo must be packaged and flown in accordance with military regulations. A list of common hazardous cargo is in Appendix A. Identify all of your hazardous equipment (including science supplies, BFC equipment, and MEC equipment) and turn it over to Science Cargo, where personnel will package all hazardous materials in accordance with military regulations. 7.2g Frozen Food Frozen food must be packaged and stored in the BFC Food Room freezer until your cargo is turned over to the MCC. Once turned over, the frozen food is stored in the galley freezers. A few hours before your flight, Strip Cargo personnel will transport the frozen food to the aircraft. If the flight is delayed or canceled, it is wise to ensure that all frozen food is returned to the galley freezer. There have been problems with frozen food thawing because it was left at the airstrip when a flight was delayed or canceled. The system is not flawless - it's in your best interest to follow up on some things to ensure that they are done. Refer to Section 3.4 for more information. 7.2h Field Operation Communications Center (FOCC) Check-In Remember to stop at the FOCC to obtain a Frequency Assignment Plan and your radio call sign. 7.2i Radio Briefing At least two members of your field party should attend the MacElex Electronics Shop (ET Shop) radio briefing. ET Shop personnel will issue your field radios and will instruct you on their use. 7.2j Weather Briefing At least two members of your field party should attend the briefing at the NSFA Weather Office (located on the 2nd floor of Mac Center, Building 165). Weather Office personnel will provide instruction on making weather observations and about how to relay weather observations to McMurdo. You'll also be issued a meteorological kit, which includes a thermometer, an anemometer, an altimeter, and a cloud identification chart. Refer to Chapter 9: Weather for more information on taking and relaying weather observations. 7.2k Preparation of Flammable Liquid Containers Empty containers that originally contained fuel must be rinsed with "purging fuel" prior to air shipment. Fill (at least) three 5-gallon jerry cans with "purging fuel." Ask Science Cargo personnel for more information on purging procedures. 7.2l Ski-Way Marker Equipment Make sure to pack a few extra bamboo poles, flags, and large black garbage bags to use as ski-way markers for your pull-out flight. The flags also help identify wind speed and direction. 7.2m Bag Drag You'll have a "bag drag" (i.e., a weigh in of field personnel and their baggage to determine aircraft load) at least six hours prior to your flight. Sometimes "bag drag" is the evening prior to an early morning flight. At this time, you must "check in" all your personal gear (i.e., clothes and all personal items you want with you in the field). These checked-in items will stay with the plane in the event of a flight cancellation. You will be allowed to hand carry one piece of baggage when you board the plane. Make sure to put shoes, clothes, and a toothbrush in your hand carry in case the flight is canceled. In addition, your radios and weather kit must be hand carried. This is to ensure that the radios will be warm and that you can establish communications with McMurdo before the plane leaves you in the field. 7.3 The Day of the LC-130 Put-In Flight 1. Check the Flight Schedule. The flight schedule is posted in the Galley and the Chalet. by about 8:00 p.m. the evening before each flight. 2. Attend the Pre-Flight Briefing. The Principal Investigator (PI) and/or the most experienced field-team member should attend the pre-flight briefing at the Williams Field passenger terminal or other location prearranged with the aircraft commander. Weather considerations and alternative put-in sites should be discussed. To enhance flexibility, questions such as: "Is it possible to traverse to the work area if put-in at a different location?" may arise. 3. Report to the MCC. Report to the MCC for transportation to the airstrip two hours before the scheduled departure time. 4. Inspect Your Gear. Do not assume that all your cargo and flight details have been taken care of. Inspect your snowmobiles - make sure you have possession of the keys. You must have survival gear: radios, sleeping bags, tents, stoves, and food. Double-check your cargo manifest against what you can visually see on the aircraft. If something is missing, don't be intimidated! Tell the Loadmaster that the Aircraft Commander must stop the flight. The Strip Cargo representatives will need to be advised that equipment is missing. Movement around the aircraft is directed by the aircraft Loadmaster. Listen and follow his/her directions! 7.4 In-the-Field Procedures 7.4a Camp Put-In Procedures After the air crew drops you off, and before they can leave you in the field, you must make radio contact with a fixed station: McMurdo, South Pole, Byrd Surface Camp, or a Siple Coast field camp (depending on season). You must also erect a shelter (tent). The most efficient way to do this is to split in two groups. One group will set up a tent (well away from the aircraft and turning area). The second group will set up the radio and antenna (well away from the aircraft) and establish communications. * [ See figure LC 1302] Establish Communication with a Fixed Station 7.4b Marking Grid North One member of your party should consult with the aircraft navigator or pilot in order to set the altimeter (in the meteorological kit) and to determine the location of Grid North. Use two bamboo flags to mark Grid North. All heading references given to aircraft and all wind direction information given during scheduled weather reports will be in relation to Grid North. Review the heights and distances of local features (if any) for passing weather information. See Chapter 20: Antarctic Navigation for a discussion of Grid North. 7.4 c Daily Communication with Mac Ops At a pre-arranged time everyday, you must have radio communication with McMurdo via Mac Ops. Radio communication between some areas of Antarctica and McMurdo is poor. Sometimes it is necessary for field parties to relay between South Pole Station, a major field camp, or another remote field party for daily check-in. See Chapter 8: Field Radios for more detailed information on communications. You may be required to give weather observations in your daily communications. Be prepared with the proper weather information in the correct order. (Refer to Chapter 9: Weather.) You might also be asked to relay weather information for another field party. If a field party fails to communicate for a period of 72 hours, a Search and Rescue (SAR) effort may be initiated. 7.4d Communications with the Fixed-Wing Operations Coordinator In addition to your daily check-in with Mac Ops, you have the option to communicate with the Fixed-Wing Operations Coordinator at 9:00 am and 2:00 pm daily. At this time you can pass along information, make resupply requests, request schedule changes, or request camp pull-out times. 7.5 Preparating for Camp Pull-Out 7 .5a Pull-out Schedule and Retrograde Advisory Coordinate your pull-out schedule with the Fixed-Wing Operations Coordinator. When doing this, you'll need to pass information regarding the weight, cube, and type of retrograde cargo you have. Of particular importance is the number of fuel drums (full and partial) for retrograde. Field samples will generally replace the weight of food and fuel that have been consumed. 7.5b Waste Retrograde Remote deep-field groups must retrograde all waste. This does not include human waste. See Chapter 14: Waste Retrograde for simple methods of waste handling in the field. 7.5c Equipment Staging Your camp must be entirely broken down; the gear must be staged, palletized, and ready for quick loading when the aircraft arrives. All pallets should be right side up (noted by the red stripe along the edge - this indicates the top of the pallet), broken free of snow and ice, and ready to be towed by snowmobile to the rear of the aircraft. Nansen sleds should be loaded only with Scott tents. If you overload the sleds with other gear, they may be damaged when they are off-loaded. Everything except tent(s) and radio(s) should be arranged as shown in the diagram on the following page. Note: Snowmobiles and fuel drums (both full and empty) should be staged in this pile. 7.5d Preparation of Flammable Liquid Containers All items/containers that contain flammable liquids (with the exception of vented stoves and snowmobiles) must be drained and rinsed with "purging fuel." Do not rinse or purge stoves - it ruins them!!!! * [See figure Wind Chart Pict 2] 7.5e Hazardous Equipment Repackaging All hazardous equipment should be repackaged similarly to how it was shipped (e.g., matches in foil, 12-V batteries in wooden boxes, etc.). Partially full drums should be tightly capped and tipped on their side to confirm a good seal. Snowmobiles must have between 1/4 and 1/2 tank of fuel in them for aircraft transport. No more and no less! 7.5f Ski-Way Preparation for the Pull-Out Flight To help the pilot identify your location in poor surface/horizon conditions, mark the ski-way location with a series of bamboo poles and black trash bags. Make sure you do this before the aircraft arrives! Place a pole and flag at each end of the ski-way location. Ski-ways are marked with ski-way markers (one on each side) every 500 feet down the length of the 6000-foot ski-way. These markers are made from ventilated garbage bags or gravel sample sacks placed over 6-foot bamboo poles. Two 12-foot bamboo poles with red flags are placed at each end of the ski-way, as shown in the diagram on the following page. Total Requirements for Ski-Way Markers: 26 trash bags 52 six-foot bamboo poles 4 one-foot bamboo poles with red flags 7.5g Hourly Weather Observations for the Pull-Out Flight When an aircraft mission(s) to your site is planned, you will be required to begin hourly weather observations six hours prior to the scheduled launch of an aircraft, and continue hourly observations through the landing of the aircraft. See Chapter 9: Weather for more detailed instructions on giving weather observations. * [See figure 3 Skiway Markers Pict2] 7.6 Camp Pull-Out via LC-130 Aircraft The aircraft will be running during your pick-up. If you are not prepared for an expedient loading, you and/or your gear may be left behind because of fuel considerations. Loading an LC-130 aircraft in the deep field is a slow and smoky process. The engines will be reduced to tick over, but will still produce enormous blast, kerosene smell, and noise. 7.6a Communication with Incoming Aircraft It is the responsibility of the person on the radio to pass along all requested information to the incoming aircraft. Know the condition of the ski-way, the current wind conditions, and the altimeter setting. Using a signal mirror can help the aircraft commander tremendously in making a quick approach to your camp. While on final approach, the aircraft commander will not want to respond to any radio transmissions, but he/she will appreciate short statements pertaining to any changes in weather conditions - particularly wind directions. Be sure to communicate all information pertaining to cargo loading well before arrival, so you don't interfere with the aircraft during final approach. 7.6b Loading the Aircraft The Loadmaster is responsible for coordinating the loading of the aircraft. One member of your group should approach the Loadmaster (when signaled) for instruction on loading. Arrange for a visit (via the BFC staff) to the duty loadmaster at the Ice Runway or Williams Field. Spend about an hour to see how the loading system works in the deep field. Snowmobiles should be driven nose forward onto the aircraft only by those familiar with their operation. 7.6c Last Minute Camp Pull-Out Details Take down the tent(s) and disassemble the radio(s) and antenna(s). Retrieve the ski-way markers. Before take-off, take one last look to make sure you have everything and make sure everyone in your group is on the plane! 7.7 Returning to McMurdo Station After returning to McMurdo, do the following: 1. Return all your field equipment to the appropriate work center. 2. Package and mark cargo that will be retrograded to the U.S. Specific instructions for this process are outlined in the "Instructions for Packaging and Shipping" document which is sent to all grantees prior to the field season. 3. Provide feedback regarding your field support to ASA and NSF. Discuss any problems or recommendations with the responsible work center Supervisor or Manager. This will assist everyone in improving the level of field party support. Chapter 8 Field Radios A field radio is one of the most important pieces of equipment you can take into the field. Radio contact with McMurdo Station, other field parties, and aircraft will make your field season run more smoothly; it can also save your life. This chapter provides instruction on setting up and operating both the High-Frequency (HF) radios and the Very-High-Frequency (VHF), hand-held radios. Field parties staying in the field for more than 24 hours are required to make a daily safety check-in with the Field Operation Communications Center (FOCC)--call sign MACOPS -- at McMurdo Station, either directly or through a relay with another station or field party if direct communications are difficult. If a field party fails to communicate for a period of 72 hours, a Search and Rescue (SAR) effort may be initiated. 8.1 HF versus VHF Radios for field groups are provided by the USAP. Each type of radio issued to field parties has inherent limitations that you should be aware of. HF radios (the PRC-1099) are considered to be best for long-distance "over-the-horizon" communications. HF radio waves are "bounced" or refracted off the ionosphere and back to Earth. Accordingly, HF communications are susceptible to landmass, and the angle of the "bounce" off the ionosphere may miss ("skip") the receiving station. HF communications are easily affected by magnetic disturbances and sun-spot activity; blackouts can occur for days without warning. VHF (hand-held and vehicle) radios are "line of sight" radios; therefore, they are unable to transmit through any solid barriers (land formations). On a flat surface, you are limited by the horizon (curvature of the earth) and subtle rolls in the terrain. In the McMurdo vicinity, VHF is augmented on several channels with repeater stations. However, you still have to be in "line of sight" of a repeater for your message to be transmitted. 8.2 Getting Your Field Radio(s) 1. Call the MacElex ET Shop (in the Navy Administration Building 165) for an appointment to pick up your radios. 2. Establish your field party's call sign and a daily safety reporting schedule by completing a "Frequency Assignment Plan" at the Field Operations Communications Center (FOCC), located in Building 165, second floor. 3. Pick up your radios at the ET Shop and attend the ET demonstration class. You need to have your radios in hand before your scheduled Field Safety Training Course 4. Test each of your radios. All field-party radios (and components) must be tested before deploying to the field. This is best accomplished on a Field Safety Training equipment shakedown away from McMurdo. In past seasons, there has been a high percentage of radio failures and operator errors in the field. Test your radios and all components! You should plug in the handset of your PRC-1099 radio to the front panel socket (labeled "Audio") before taking it into the field. Leave the handset plugged in because once the rubber washer gets cold, it's very difficult to attach. 5. At camp put-in you must have the following: Radios Handsets Antennas Batteries and sufficient power recharging capabili ties for the duration of your field season Back-up radio (complete) You must have a radio if a helicopter leaves you in the field, no matter how short your stay may be at that site. 6. At your put-in site, you must immediately establish communications with the FOCC at McMurdo. If you cannot establish communications, you will be flown back to McMurdo. Radio relay via an aircraft does not constitute established communications. 7. At the end of your season, return your radios, batteries, chargers, and antennas to the ET Shop at Mac Center - not to the BFC. 8.3 HF Radios: Basic Description The PRC-1099 radio is a single-sideband radio set for operation in the upper sideband (USB) mode. USB is the only mode of operation allowed for use by field parties. The peak transmitter output power is approximately 20 watts. The complete field kit weighs about 25 pounds. The PRC-1099 will operate to about -30 degrees Celsius. Below this temperature, it is recommended that you keep the radio elevated inside a tent, hut, etc., and keep it as warm as possible. 8.4 The PRC-1099 Radio * [See figure 3 radio 3] 8.4a Batteries and Chargers: PRC-1099 Rechargeable, sealed lead-calcium batteries are used in the PRC-1099 radios. In a cold environment, the chemical reaction in the batteries begins to slow, and available electricity slows down or eventually stops. Therefore, you'll need to recharge or replace batteries fairly often. (Return all used batteries to the ET Shop in McMurdo for proper disposal.) The PRC-1099 radio contains one battery. The PRC-l099 backpack also contains a battery. It takes approximately 12 hours in full sunlight to fully charge a battery. The PRC-l099 can be operated with the solar charging unit attached. 8.4b Setting up the Antenna for the PRC-1099 1. The PRC-1099 transceiver is ready for operation. No switches need to be set. 2. Unroll the antenna and place all the shorting bars into the corresponding banana plugs, except the plug with the color designated to the frequency at which you want to operate. Antenna Station Frequency Plug-Ins Emergency/Aircraft Field Party 8998 kHz All but orange McM Field Party and Weather Reporting 4770 kHz All but blue McM Secondary 7995 kHz All but yellow McM Secondary/ Field Party and Weather Reporting 11553 kHz All Scott Base 5400 kHz All but green 3. Attach the antenna to the antenna cable located in the front pocket of the backpack. Attach the other end of the antenna cable to the front panel connector labeled "ANT." 4. Attach the ends of the antenna and the antenna center block to bamboo poles. 5. Place the bamboo poles so the antenna is elevated as far off the ground as possible, either perpendicular to the station you are calling, or at a 45-to 90-degree angle, with the apex pointing away from the station you are communicating with. The apex should point to your radio set. See the diagram on the following page. Note: In an emergency, if your antenna is lost or damaged, some alternate antenna materials may be used: tent poles, metal crevasse ladders, ice drill extension shafts, pack frames, or snowmobile wiring. 8.4c Setting up the Solar Panel: PRC-1099 1. Remove the solar panel from the front pocket of the radio backpack, open it, and position in a sunlit area. Make sure the panel won't be shaded by tents or equipment. The solar panel is not effective if any of the cells are shaded. 2. Attach the solar panel connector to the front panel connector labeled "ACC". * [See figure 3 radio 1a] 8.4d Using Your PRC-1099 Radio 1. Attach one end of the cable provided in the backpack to the front panel connector labeled "ANT." Connect the other end of the cable to the dipole antenna cable. 2. Attach the handset to either of the two "Audio" jacks. This should be done in a warm environment; it's difficult to attach in the cold. 3. Turn the "Volume Control" knob until the noise level is comfortable. 4. A flashing light on the display means the battery is low. If it is low, refer to Section 8.4e: Troubleshooting PRC-1099 Radios. 5. Select the desired channel. PRC-1099s have been channelized to the following frequencies: Station Frequency Aircraft/Field Party Emergency 8998 kHz McM Field Party (Dry Valleys and surrounding area)/ Weather Reporting 4770 kHz McM Secondary 7995 kHz McM Secondary/ Field Party and Weather Reporting 11553 kHz Note: If the memory is inadvertently dumped, rechannelize the radio by following the steps below: 1. Set Channel switch to "MAN." 2. Turn the Digit switch up or down to select the desired digit. The selected digit will flash. 3. Turn the Tune switch up or down to select the correct number. 4. To change frequencies in channels l-8, set the Channel control to desired channel number, press/hold the whip tune button and repeat steps 2 through 3. 5. Turn the Function switch to "USB." 6. Set the power toggle to "HI." 7. Press the transmit button on the handset's side to transmit. 8.4e Troubleshooting PRC-1099 Radios Make sure you're in "HI." Make sure you're on "USB" on the Function switch. Check all connections. Make sure all antenna shorting plugs are connected properly for your frequency. Problem Possible Reason(s) No Power/Low Power Dead/weak batteries or solar panels not properly attached. No Transmit Faulty handset/antenna connection. Not enough voltage. Front panel display flashes. In the event that power is interrupted at MACOPS, try 11553 kHz (South Pole) or 5400 kHz (Scott Base). Incorrect shorting plugs attached to the antenna. No Receive Handset poorly connected. Volume control too low (control must be set at mid-range). 8.5 Time Signals Standard radio and audio frequency transmissions are made continuously by the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., over stations WWV and WWVH. Both stations broadcast on 5, 10, and 15 MHz (15,000 kHz). Signals are sometimes weak in the mornings. These broadcasts are interrupted at times for maintenance purposes. The standard audio frequencies are interrupted at two minutes before each hour, and every five minutes thereafter (e.g., 1958, 2003, 2008, etc.), resuming after an interval of two minutes. Thus, you can take a series of checks at, say, 2000, 2005, 2010 etc. During the two-minute intervals, Eastern Standard Time (GMT minus 5 hours or NZ time minus 17 hours) is announced by voice, and GMT time is signalled slowly in morse code. A 0.005-second pulse may be heard as a faint click every second, except for the 59th second of each minute; this gives a warning of the return of the audio tone exactly on the hour, 5 minutes past, 10 minutes past, etc. The BBC's General Overseas Service also broadcasts its "six pips" time signal on the hour throughout the day, and is accurate to one tenth of a second. (The sixth pip marks the minutes, e.g., 2000, 2300 etc.) These can be picked up in the usual shortwave bands between 9.0 and 9.8 MHz, 11.6 and 12.1 MHz, and 15.0 and 15.5 MHz. 8.6 Radio Emergency Action 8.6a Sending a Distress Message In an emergency, stay calm, assess the situation, and use the following steps to call for help: 1. Select the correct frequency. 2. Speak clearly and take your time. 3. Call MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY. 4. Listen for a reply. 5. When a reply is received, tell the other station who you are, where you are, the nature of your emergency, and that you are trying to make contact with MACOPS at McMurdo Station. Give any information that may assist a rescue operation. 6. If no reply is received Check your equipment. Repeat your call at regular intervals and allow listening periods between calls. 8.6b Action on Receipt of a Distress Message 1. Listen carefully. Write down the message and time received. 2. Listen for an acknowledgment from McMurdo or other major station. 3. If another station does not acknowledge, acknowledge the distress call and then retransmit the distress message to McMurdo, using the words MAYDAY Relay, MAYDAY Relay, MAYDAY Relay. This is. . . (give your station call sign three times). 4. Give the distress message as broadcast by the station in distress. 5. Give assistance to the station in distress if possible. Advise McMurdo of what you're doing. 6. Continue to listen in. Unnecessary traffic should be avoided at all times! 8.6c Cancellation of Mayday Messages If/when help is no longer required, don't forget to announce cancellation of your distress or urgency call! 8.7 Communications Procedures for Fixed-Wing Aircraft LC-130 aircraft (Hercs) are capable of communicating on any of the frequencies programmed into the PRC-1099 radio. Aircraft communications with field parties will normally occur on 8998 MHz. If an aircraft cannot be reached on that frequency, try 4770 kHz or 11553 kHzor MACOPS. Hercs are identified by the call sign prefix "X-Ray Delta" followed by the large number painted on the aircraft's fuselage. The call sign for Aircraft One would be "X-Ray Delta Zero One." Assuming you are Event S-001, proper communications would proceed as follows: You: "X-Ray Delta Zero One, This is Sierra Zero Zero One, Over." LC-130: "Sierra Zero Zero One, This is X-Ray Delta Zero One, Copy You Loud and Clear, Over." You: "X-Ray Delta Zero One, This is Sierra Zero Zero One". . . (Proceed with your message. . . ) 8.8 VHF Radios VHF radios are used for local, "line-of-sight" communications, such as between your field party on the sea ice and McMurdo, or between field-party members working some distance from a base camp. The USAP currently uses MX300 and SABER hand-held radios. VHF radios can be used in the field only if you will be operating in "line of sight" of MACOPS or a VHF repeater. If you are out in the field for more than 24 hours, you will need a HF PRC-1099. VHF (hand-held) radio batteries will go dead in the cold after 24 hours. A limited number of experimental solar rechargers are available for VHF radios and batteries. 8.8a Operation of Handheld Radios 1. Ensure that both the battery and antenna are properly attached. 2. Select the proper channel for the area you are in and type of operation (see the following table for frequencies). 3. Turn the radio on. -MX300-R and SABER at volume control. -Midland at switch on side of radio. 4. Turn the squelch on until a "hash" noise is heard. Set the volume control to a comfortable listening volume, then back off the squelch control until the noise ceases. Inability to get the noise often indicates low or no battery charge. 5. Listen to ensure you won't be transmitting over the top of other transmissions. "Stepping" on other transmissions will cancel them both. 6. Hold the radio in a vertical position. Press the transmit button on the side of the hand-held (or the top of the extension mike). Talk slowly and clearly. CH VHF-FM Channel Name TX RX 1 143.0 143.0 I-Net 2 139.6 139.6 Crash Net 3 142.8 138.8 NZ Portable Repeater 4 139.3 143.8 NZ Crater Hill Repeater 5 142.6 142.6 MCC Net 6 139.2 139.2 PW Net 7 139.5 139.5 Science Net 8 138.6 143.225 Field Party Ops Repeater 9 143.6 143.6 Fuels Net 10 139.8 143.725 Crater Hill Repeater 11 143.4 143.4 Helo Ops 12 143.2 143.2 Penguin Ops Note: All MX-300 SABER and Midland radios issued to field parties are programmed with the same channelized frequencies. 8.8b Troubleshooting VHF Hand-Held Radios Problem Possible Reasons No Power Dead battery. Poor battery connection. Inability to adjust the squelch often indicates a low or dead battery. (Batteries will last longer if you keep both the radio and batteries warm under your clothing.) Mode select switch is flipped to the wrong position. No Transmit Out of "line of sight" with receiving party or repeater. Try climbing to higher ground - even holding the radio as high as possible with a remote clip-on mike will sometimes help. Moving away from a vehicle may enhance transmission. Try transmitting to other stations, field parties, or repeaters that are not in a "shadow" (Williams Field, Scott Base, Vanda, Field Safety Training, Marble Point, etc.) and ask for a relay. Poor antenna connection. Low battery. Weak light or no light indicates no power. Check battery. Faulty hand mike. Repeater may be down. Trigger the mike/transmit switch and release. If you are operating through a repeater, a noise burst should be heard for approximately one second. If there is no noise, you are either not transmitting or receiving, or the repeater is down. Try another channel. No Receive Weak battery. Check both the squelch and mode select switches. Party transmitting may have a weak radio, or poor vantage point for transmitting. Get to a better site for reception or ask for a relay from another station or party. If party transmitting is coming across poorly, try breaking squelch to receive weak incoming signal. 8.8c Troubleshooting Vehicle-Installed VHF Radios Problem Possible Reasons No Power Radio disconnected. Fuse blown. Ignition is not turned on. No Transmit Faulty mike. Faulty or disconnected antenna. Wrong channel. No Transmit Out of "line of sight" with receiving party or repeater.. Try another channel. Try for a relay/radio check. No Receive Faulty antenna. Faulty speaker. Test speaker with squelch. Try a radio check. 8.8d MCX-1000 Problems Many of the new, digital MCX-1000 VHF radios are directly hooked up to the vehicle's batteries. If the MCX-1000 is not turned off and the vehicle is not running, the radio will rapidly drain the vehicle's battery. Note: When the vehicle's batteries go dead, and the vehicle is subsequently jump-started by the Heavy Shop, the jump start will create a power surge and short out the radio's programming if the radio is not turned off. If this happens, the radio will need to be reprogrammed by the ET shop. To test for this problem, turn the radio on (at the volume control). The radio will perform a self test function. If the radio remains in the self test mode for more than one minute, or gives a fail indication, notify the MEC (if a science vehicle) or the ET Shop. 8.8e VHF Communications Procedures For Helicopters You must have a radio if a helicopter leaves you in the field - no matter how short your stay may be at that site. A helicopter's primary means of communication with the field parties will normally be on VHF Channel 8 (FP Ops: TX-138.6, RX-143.225). Secondary communications by PRC-1099 (HF) is normally on 8997 kHz. HF communications should be prearranged with the VXE-6 helicopters prior to departure. VXE-6 helicopters are identified by the call sign prefix "Gentle" followed by the large number painted on the aircraft's fuselage. Helo Number Eleven would be "Gentle One One." Assuming a helo is too far away to see, and you are S-001, proper communications would be as follows: You: "Gentle, Gentle, This is Sierra Zero Zero One, Over." Helo: "Sierra Zero Zero One, This is Gentle One One, Copy You Loud and Clear, Over." You: "Gentle One One, This is Sierra Zero Zero One. . .(proceed with your message)" 8.9 Radio Alphabet and Morse Code . = "dit" - = "dah" Morse Morse Code Alphabet Code Abbreviations A Alpha dit-dah AA All after B Bravo dah-dit-dit-dit BB All before C Charlie dah-dit-dah-dit CC Break/I wish to interrupt D Delta dah-dit-dit CFM I confirm E Echo dit CL I'm closing my station F Foxtrot dit-dit-dah-dit CQ Call any station G Golf dah-dit-dah-dit DE This is an identifier H Hotel dit-dit-dit-dit E East I India dit-dit ER Here J Juliet dit-dah-dah-dah ETA Estimated time of arrival K Kilo dah-dit-dah K Transmit now, I'm listening L Lima dit-dah-dit-dit KTS Knots M Mike dah-dah MIN Minutes N November dah-dit N North O Oscar dah-dah-dah NO Negative P Papa dit-dah-dah-dit NW Now Q Quebec dah-dah-dit-dah OK I agree R Romeo dit-dah-dit PSE Please S Sierra dit-dit-dit R Message T Tango dah REF Reference to U Uniform dit-dit-dah RPT Repeat V Victor dit-dit-dit-dah S South W Whiskey dit-dah-dah TFC Traffic X X-ray dah-dit-dit-dah TU Thanks Y Yankee dah-dit-dah-dah W West Z Zulu dah-dah-dit-dit WA Word after 1 One dit-dah-dah-dah-dah 2 Two dit-dit-dah-dah-dah 3 Three dit-dit-dit-dah-dah 4 Four dit-dit-dit-dit-dah 5 Five dit-dit-dit-dit-dit 6 Six dah-dit-dit-dit-dit 7 Seven dah-dah-dit-dit-dit 8 Eight dah-dah-dah-dit-dit 9 Nine dah-dah-dah-dah-dit 0 Zero dah-dah-dah-dah-dah 8.10 Ground to Air Emergency Signals The following two pages contain diagrams of ground to air emergency signals. If radio communications with aircraft are not available, you can communicate with these signals. * [See figure radio 4] * [See figure radio 5] Chapter 9 Weather *[See figure WEATHER 1] Weather in Antarctica is characterized by extremes: extreme temperatures, extreme winds, and extremely variable localized conditions. All of these extremes make Antarctica a difficult place to work and live. Temperatures at McMurdo Station can vary from below -20 F to above freezing during the course of a season. The polar plateau experiences even colder temperatures because of its higher altitudes and greater distance from the moderating effect of the ocean. Winds are common in Antarctica. It's an unusual day when there is not at least a breeze blowing. The winds take their toll on people, making camp chores such as setting up tents more difficult. More importantly, the winds increase the wind chill effect, making people more susceptible to hypothermia and frostbite. The chart on the following page details the effects of wind on temperature. * [See figure WEATHER 2] Storms arrive quickly and are sometimes fierce enough to halt all outside activity. Storms can also be very localized. Weather in McMurdo can be close to zero visibility with blowing snow (halting flight operations), while the Dry Valleys, which are 50 miles away from McMurdo, might be calm and sunny. Approaching storms are usually preceded by high thin bands of cirrus clouds (mare's tails) followed by thicker layers of cirrus which may cause a halo-like effect around the sun. The clouds grow progressively thicker and lower over the next 6 to 12 hours until the arrival of low cumulus clouds and the main front. Blizzards, or "Herbies," can happen any time of year and usually last 3 to 6 days. Storms approaching McMurdo Station usually arrive from the south in the gap between Black Island and White Island, an area known as "Herbie Alley." As the storms approach, they eventually obscure Minna Bluff with blowing snow or low clouds, at which point there's usually less than an hour before the bad weather hits. Travel will be extremely difficult and dangerous during storms. Blowing snow or whiteouts can be disorienting and can make seeing crevasses or cracks in the sea ice impossible. Even moderate winds can pick up and move a layer of dense blowing snow that may be as thin as a few feet or as thick as 20 or 30 feet. Sometimes it's possible to see above these layers by standing on a vehicle and taking a bearing for navigation. If the terrain to be travelled over is not known, however, it would be safer to stay put. Whiteouts are an equally dangerous phenomenon. Heavy low clouds reduce surface definition, and the horizon is invisible. It's difficult or impossible to know if you are on a flat or sloping surface. It is likewise difficult to judge distances or the size of objects. Travel should be avoided during whiteouts, unless there is an emergency. 9.1 McMurdo Weather The McMurdo weather office (Mac Weather) issues daily weather forecasts that are updated every four hours and are available by calling the weather office or through McMurdo Operations (Mac Ops). Mac Weather also issues a weather classification for the immediate vicinity of McMurdo that restricts certain activities when the weather deteriorates. These weather conditions are divided into the following three categories: Condition III Winds up to 48 knots, wind chill down to -75 degrees, and visibility over 1/4th mile. Unrestricted travel and activity are allowed, but severe weather is possible within 12 hours. Condition II Winds 48 to 55 knots, wind chill -75 to 100 degrees, or visibility 100 feet to 1/4th mile. Restricted pedestrian traffic only between buildings is allowed. Travel is allowed only on marked trails or roads in authorized, radio-equipped vehicles. Condition I Winds over 55 knots, wind chill lower than 100 degrees, or visibility less than 100 feet. Severe weather is in progress. All personnel must remain in buildings or the neares shelter. * [See figure WEATHER 3] 9.2 Weather Observations from the Field Prior to deep-field put-ins, at least two members of your field team should attend a briefing at the NSFA Weather Office. At this office, you will be instructed in weather observations and how to relay this information to McMurdo. You'll also be issued a meteorological kit that includes a thermometer, an anemometer, an altimeter, and a cloud identification chart. Refer to the booklet in the meteorological kit for in-depth information on field weather observations. Taking a weather observation entails viewing the meteorological conditions at your camp and reporting those conditions in such a way that they can be visualized by the forecasters at McMurdo. A typical field weather observation in Antarctica relayed by radio includes the following: 1. Wind direction is expressed in degrees (Grid North) and is rounded off to the nearest whole 10 degrees. Refer to Chapter 20: Antarctic Navigation for information on Grid North. 2. Wind speed is expressed in knots/hour. A wind gust is a sudden change in wind speed characterized by a variation of 10 knots between peak and lull. Both the prevailing wind speed and wind gust (if applicable) are reported. An anemometer is used to determine wind speed and direction. 3. Visibility is given in miles; it is dependent on the geographical features near your camp. Ski-way markers, which are set up at known distances, can be used to determine surface visibility. The maximum visibility on a clear day is seven miles, after which a flat ground horizon will fall away to a point that surface conditions cannot be observed. 4. Cloud height is expressed in feet. At an open field, cloud height is estimated. If you are in an area with geographical features of known elevations, use those features to determine cloud height. Cloud heights are reported "Above Ground Level (AGL)." Be able to convert to the "Mean Sea Level (MSL)" if requested. 5. Cloud type and cloud cell appearance will help determine the height of a cloud layer. The atmosphere over the Antarctic is shallower than it is at the equator; therefore, the heights of cloud layers are lower. Low clouds (stratus and stratocumulus) are commonly found at the surface up to 6,000 feet (MSL). Mid-level clouds (altostratus and altocumulus) are generally at levels from 6,000 to 12,00 feet (MSL). High clouds (cirrostratus and cirrus) are usually 12,000 to 16,000 feet (MSL). 6. Cloud coverage is expressed in eighths of the sky. When reporting cloud layers, start at the ground and proceed upward. Clear No clouds present. Scattered Trace to 4/8ths of the sky covered. Broken More than 4/8ths, but not total sky coverage. Overcast Total sky coverage. Partial Sky is partially obscured, typically Obscuration bysnow or blowing snow. Some clouds are discernible. Total Sky is totally obscured, typically by Obscuration snow or blowing snow. Thin Layer is transparent. Opaque Layer is dense. 7. Temperature is given in degrees Celsius. Make sure that the thermometer is not directly exposed to sunlight. Protect the thermometer from the wind. 8. Pressure is expressed in millibars. 9. Altimeter setting is expressed in inches of mercury to the hundredths. The altimeter setting is the figure that incoming pilots will want the most, because it allows them to determine the altitude (in reference to mean sea level) at which the aircraft will make contact with the landing field. 10. The following surface definition terms should be used to report observations: Good Snow surface features such as sastrugi, drifts, and gullies are easily identified by shadow. Fair Snow surface features can be identified by contrast. No definite shadows exist. Poor Snow surface features cannot be readily identified except from close up. Nil Snow surface features cannot be identified. No shadows or contrast. Dark objects appear to float in the air. 11. The following horizon definition terms should be used to report observations: Good Horizon is sharply defined by shadow or contrast. Fair Horizon may be identified, but the contrast between sky and snow surface is sharply defined. Poor Horizon is barely discernible. Nil Total loss of horizon, the snow surface merges with the whiteness of the sky. 9.3 Radio Transmission of Weather Observations The primary frequencies for passing weather observations are 11553 kHz for remote-site field parties and 4770 kHz for Dry Valley and surrounding areas field parties. Chapter 10 Snow Shelters This chapter explains how to build different snow shelters in the Antarctic, as well as the relative merits of each type of shelter and the time required to build each type of shelter. The choice of shelter to build will be dictated by the local snow conditions. If a camp is occupied for several days, it's a good idea to build a snow shelter for an emergency shelter (just in case). A snow shelter can be used also as a toilet shelter. 10.1 Snow Quarry and Block Cutting Before you build a snow shelter, identify an area you can use as a quarry to cut snow blocks. The quarry site and the method of cutting blocks are important for the success of most shelters. In many areas of Antarctica, the snow conditions are perfect for cutting out snow blocks. However, some areas such as the Siple Coast, may have sugar snow or powder snow. In these areas, your quarry will have to be stomped out and packed down (ski and boot packing works well), and the snow will have to be allowed to sinter (freeze solid). This can take up to an hour before the snow is solid enough for block cutting. On sea ice or on hard frozen glaciers, snow drifts that contain good block-cutting snow can sometimes be found. The snow conditions may change in just a few feet in your quarry. You may run into an ice layer or a sugar layer that will affect the quality of your blocks. If this happens, try cutting the blocks at a different orientation (horizontally versus vertically or try cutting deeper in the quarry or simply moving over a few feet. Probe with your saw or axe for the right consistency. Don't panic if you don't have a snow saw. You can produce good blocks with a shovel - even an ice axe will work. Keep the quarry close to your shelter; don't double the effort. If cutting blocks for a tent wall, the quarry excavation makes a great spot for your tent site. Blocks can be cut out of the snow shelter site (i.e., the snow trench can be the quarry). Try to cut your blocks the same size. Put one aside for a model. Rock-box size blocks are preferable for most projects except roofs. 10.2 Snow Walls * [See figure SHELTER 1] Snow walls provide wind-free areas for cooking and for community "lounging." A snow wall should be built around mountaineering tents. (Note: Snow walls are not necessary when using Scott tents.) This will keep the tent from blowing away in gale force winds, decrease wind chill, and reduce tent flapping noise. Snow-wall blocks should all be the same size, and each block should overlap the gaps in the course below it. Rock-box size blocks are preferable. 10.3 Snow Trenches (1/2 to 2 Hours) A snow trench is a good, quick, simple shelter. The snow must be deep and soft enough to shovel to an adequate depth. If an ice layer stops shoveling progress, snow blocks can be stacked to increase the effective depth of the shelter. A trench can be a quick or "hasty" shelter in an emergency, or a cavernous, comfortable abode complete with sleeping benches and snow-block A-frame roof. 10.3a Trench with Snow-Block Roof 1. Choose a site with soft enough snow for digging. Mark an outline in the surface just slightly wider than your shoulders and 6 to 7 feet long. 2. Excavate the trench by cutting out blocks with a snow saw and/or by shoveling (blocks for the roof can come out of a separate quarry area). It's critical that the top of the trench "hole" be just slightly wider than shoulder width - just wide enough to work in. If you make the trench too wide, you'll have a very difficult time roofing it in with snow blocks. The trench should be waist-deep to arm-pit deep depending on the snow conditions and the desired comfort for the inhabitants. If hard snow or an ice layer prevents you from digging to an adequate depth, build up the depth by making a wall around the excavation with large, stout snow blocks. 3. When the trench is deep enough, sleeping benches can be carved out of the sides of the trench. Be careful not to dig too close to the surface or the snow will be too weak to support the roof blocks. 4. Roof blocks can be either laid flat across the trench or set up in an A-frame style, which gives more head room. Roof blocks leaned A-frame style can be staggered to support each successive block. Don't worry about gaps or holes, these can be filled in later with snow chunks. Good dimensions for roof blocks are approximately 18" x 5" x 30". More importantly, let common sense and snow conditions dictate what size blocks to cut. 5. Finish the shelter by "chinking" the gaps with snow chunks and shoveling loose snow over the roof. * [See figure SHELTER 2] 10.3b Trench with Tarpaulin Roof A trench with a tarpaulin roof is the quickest shelter you can build. This is very important in an emergency. 1. The size of the trench you dig is dependent on the size of the covering and on the support items used to span the trench. Support items could include skis, ski poles, bamboo flags, rope(s) stretched tight, etc. 2. Span the trench with support items, cover with a tarp, and anchor the edges of the tarp with snow blocks or heavy equipment. Improvise with trench coverings. A trench can be covered with a tent fly, skidoo cowlings and covers, Nansen sleds, sled tanks, plywood, pallets, cardboard, plastic, etc. 3. Shovel a light skiff of snow over the tarp to add extra insulation; too much snow will collapse the tarp. * [See figure SHELTER 3] Trenches make good frozen-food coolers. They also make good toilet sites (preferably not in the same trench). 10.4 Snowmounds/Quinzhees (2 to 4 Hours) Snowmounds (also known as quinzhees) are among the easiest snow shelters to build. All you need is enough surface snow to shovel into a big pile over duffels or packs or equipment. The tunnel entrance is then dug in, the gear removed, and the shelter hollowed out and enlarged. 1. Pile equipment in the deepest patch of snow available. Avoid unnecessarily flattening the site. 2. Starting well away from the equipment pile, shovel snow into the center of the site, burying the pile of equipment. To increase the mound's strength, pat the snow down as you proceed. The buried equipment must have a minimum of 2 feet of consolidated snow covering it. Probe all around the mound with an ice axe or ski pole and shovel snow on any thin spots. 3. Dig into the mound on the downhill side, or away from the wind, to form an entrance. Dig down first and then back up into the shelter to create a cold air sump. The entrance should come up right near the wall. Be careful not to tunnel into the central sleeping area as this will waste space. 4. Another temporary entrance dug opposite the main entrance and dug in at ground level will speed up the hollowing-out process by as much as an hour. This hole should then be blocked up after hollowing out is completed. 5. The equipment in the pile should be pulled out of the entrance(s), the inside of the shelter should be hollowed out carefully, and the floor dropped to increase the inside area. When you begin to see blue light, the walls are the correct thickness: about 12 inches thick. 6. A vent hole the diameter of a tennis ball should be poked through the ceiling before operating a stove inside the shelter. The diagrams on the following two pages illustrate how to build snowmounds/quinzhees. * [See figures SHELTER 4 and SHELTER 5] 10.5 Snow Caves (3 to 4 Hours) A snow cave requires a sloping snow surface and snow that is well compacted but soft enough to shovel. Wet or unconsolidated snow is liable to collapse. Given good conditions, a snow cave will provide roomy and comfortable shelter. 1. Dig an entrance tunnel about the diameter of a car tire that extends at least 3 feet into a drift. 2. Scoop out a platform at a level above the entrance tunnel to form a cold airsump. The platform should be centered on the entrance tunnel and should be long enough and wide enough for all occupants. Remove excavated snow through the entrance. After scooping out the platform, hollow out a ceiling of a reasonable height. 3. A vent hole the diameter of a tennis ball should be poked through the ceiling before operating a stove inside the shelter. * [See figure SHELTER 6] 10.6 Igloos (3 to 5 Hours) Although igloos are by far the hardest shelter to build on a first-time effort and should not be attempted in an emergency, they are wonderful shelters to spend time in. They are warm, roomy, and aesthetically pleasing. 1. Choose a quarry site for your snow blocks. Snow should cut out firm with an even consistency. -Avoid blocks with a "curd-like" texture. -Avoid blocks with a shear layer. -In loose snow, the quarry area may have to be stomped out and allowed to set up 2. Scribe a circle in the snow near the quarry site. -Maximum diameter: 6 feet (widen it later). -Leave a center marker (ice axe or tent peg). * [See figure SHELTER 7] 3. Cut out the snow blocks. You'll need 50 to 80 blocks. Calculate the ideal block size as follows. (Use SMC saw as a ruler): Total saw (length) x 1/2 saw (width) x blade length (height) * [See figure SHELTER 8] 4. Lay out the first flight of blocks. -Cut the sides of each block so they point to the center. -Cut a spiral from ground level of the first block until the last 4 or 5 blocks are full size. -The top spiral cut must point toward the center marker (at ground level). Use your saw as a "sight/straightedge." * [See figure SHELTER 9] 5. Continue laying blocks over the first flight. (All the blocks are now full size.) *[See figure SHELT 10] Each flight of blocks is stacked slightly closer to the center. Remember that side cuts are toward the center. Level off the top layer, using your saw as a straight edge to sight toward the center at ground level. * [See figure SHELT 11] This brings the igloo progressively toward the center, which eventually closes it. The top edge of each flight should be smooth, with non bumps of steps. 6. One person needs to stay inside the igloo with a saw and a small shovel, helping place each block. -Don't chink the blocks to make them fit. -Only the block you're working on needs to be held in place. -As you build up, gently tamp the previously laid blocks in toward the center. This locks the blocks together. -Never push out on the blocks; this unlocks them. * [See figure SHELT 12] 7. The last block should be cut as a tapered "cork." It is lowered to the person inside the igloo, who can cut the sides until it drops in snugly. The person inside the igloo then should dig down into the snow at the base of a wall and tunnel over to meet the entrance tunnel being dug by a person outside. -Keep the entrance close to the wall to avoid using up sleeping area in the igloo. -The entrance should be lower than the sleeping area to create a cold sink. 8. Hollow out the floor space in the igloo to increase the sleeping area. Chink and shovel snow over any gaps in the blocks. * [See figure SHELT 14] 10.7 Crevasses and Bergshrunds Crevasses and bergshrunds, in emergency bivouac situations, can provide shelter which can be augmented by chopping out ledges. The utmost care must be taken to ensure the safety of you and your companions in such a dangerous bivouac. Although these shelters are very cold, you will be out of the wind if you choose a suitable site. Chapter 11 Tents This chapter describes the types of tents used in the USAP and offers some tips on using these tents in the field. Four different tents are issued: the Scott Polar tent, the North Face Westwind, the North Face VE-25, and the Sierra Designs Stretch Dome. The following pages provide detailed information on the set-up and tear-down of Scott Polar tents. These tents are unique to polar travel and require some instruction to use properly, especially in strong winds. The Westwind is packed in the BFC survival bags. It's easy to set up, secure in strong winds, and the flysheet provides extra room for cooking or gear storage. The VE-25 and the Stretch dome are four-season self-standing tents. The hemispherical shape is extremely efficient in shedding both wind and snow. 11.1 Preparation for All Tents Find a level site free of sharp objects and preferably out of the wind. In strong winds, if it is not an emergency, build a snow wall before erecting the tent (unless it is a Scott tent). 11.2 The Scott Polar Tent The Scott Polar tent has been the standard Antarctic exploration shelter for almost 80 years; it has changed little in design since it's original concept. This tent is designed for two people, but four or more can be accommodated in an emergency. It travels assembled, sets up quickly, is very secure in strong winds (when set up properly), is safe to cook in, and as tents go, is quite warm. 11.2a Scott Polar Tent Set-Up 1. In high winds, raise the tent while belaying with the attached rope, allowing the wind to assist you, pulling the leeward poles into position. (See the diagrams on the following two pages.) 2. In hard snow, ice, or dirt, chop or scoop out small depr1essions (3-5 inches deep) for the tent poles to rest in. 3. Place heavy items in the valance (flaps), e.g., snow, ice blocks, food boxes, rocks, etc. If you use rocks, make sure the rocks don't rub on the main tent fabric. 4. Secure the stakes, and tighten all the guy lines. Use "slippery" knots that won't require a knife when it's time to take down the tent. 5. Spread the separate floor sheet inside the tent. 6. Insert the vent tube and tie it in so that it doesn't fall out.. It's sometimes easiest to insert the vent tube before erecting the tent. Do not operate a stove in the tent without the vent tube in place. * [See figures TENT 1 and TENT 2] Note: Because of this tent's large surface area, anchors need to be especially "bomb-proof." In snow, deadman style anchors are the strongest and should be used for guylines. In the Dry Valleys, you may have to spend five minutes on each stake sledge-hammering it into frozen dirt and rock. 11.2b Scott Polar Tent Tear-Down 1. Fold up the floor sheet and secure it in a location where it won't blow away. 2. Uncover the valance and disconnect all but the windward guylines. 3. Tip the tent into the wind, collapsing the leeward poles. If the belay rope is still connected to the apex, take in slack to secure the tent. Lay the tent flat on the ground apex into the wind. Disconnect all guylines and neatly wind them up and lay them on the tent. (See the diagram on the following page.) * [See figure TENT 3] 4. Pull the tent bag over the bundle, insert the floor sheet, and tie off the tent bag as shown below. * [See figure TENT 4] If you find any tears or rips on the tent, repair them immediately with repair tape, duct tape, or needle and thread. If you don't repair these tears immediately, high winds could destroy your tent very quickly! At the end of your field season, place tags on the tent indicating tears, rips, pole problems, and/or comments. This will enable the BFC staff to quickly locate the problems and fix them. 11.3 Setting up the Sierra Designs Stretch Dome Tent To set up the the Sierra Designs Stretch Dome, stake the floor before inserting the poles. This will allow for greater pitching ease and for greater safety and stability especially in high winds. Next, stake each of the webbing loops at the back of the tent (points G and H in the figure below). Then move to the front of the tent and pull the webbing loops at points A and B until the tent floor is squarely and tautly positioned, and stake them down. Finally, stake the sides (points C and D), again pulling the tent floor taut. To erect the tent, inset the metal tips of one of the four long poles into the grommets at points A and H, and the tops of a second long pole into the grommets at points B and G. Next, poistion yourself in the open doorway and locate the double Swift Clips at the apex of the roof. Pull the two poles up so that they intersect at point I and attach both Swift Clips over the intersection of the poles as shown below. Follow the seams along the paths of the poles ant attach the Swift Clips to the poles. Next, insert a long pole at points C and D, arching the pole around the back of the tent. Following the discontinuous seam along the path of the pole, attach all single Swift Clips, and the double Swift Clips located at the intersection points of the three poles. Insert the remaining long pole at points E and F, arching the pole around the front of the tent and again attaching all Swift Clips along the discontinouos seams as before. 11.4 Setting up the Northface Westwind and VE-25 Tents The diagrams on the following two pages show how to set up the Northface Westwind and VE-25 tents. * [See figures TENT 5 and TENT 6] Chapter 12 Rope Use and Care 12.1 Types of Ropes Two basic types of climbing ropes are available for issue at the BFC: climbing (dynamic) ropes and static (non-stretch) ropes. -Climbing ropes are carefully designed and constructed to balance such factors as rope stretch, impact force transmitted to the climber, and abrasion resistance with the goal of producing a rope that minimizes the chance of injury to a falling climber or glacier traveller. -Static ropes are designed primarily to minimize stretching under working loads. It's useful for rescue and fixed safety line applications, or where rappelling or prussiking are expected, because it eliminates bouncing. Static lines should not be used as safety lines when working in crevassed areas because these ropes transmit large impact loads on a falling victim and the anchor. Ropes from the BFC will be identified for you at issue and are easy to tell apart once you know the difference. Use only the correct rope for your intended application or injury may result. In general, all safety ropes will be climbing (dynamic) ropes. 12.2 Rope Care It's important to treat your ropes as safety devices, as peoples' lives depend on them. Ropes are designed to be as durable as possible, but they are nevertheless susceptible to damage from a variety of sources. The biggest causes of damage to ropes are abuse, chemical contamination, and degradation due to ultraviolet light exposure. Never step on a rope. When dirt or grit is worked into the sheath, it will invisibly abrade the core. Never tow anything behind a vehicle with your climbing (safety) ropes or subject them to repeated high impact loads, such as long practice falls. When using your ropes around vehicles and people wearing crampons, be careful not to damage the ropes. These ropes have a self-healing sheath which hides damage to the core; because the core accounts for 80% of the strength of the rope, this could be very dangerous. Chemicals can severely weaken a rope without leaving obvious signs. Battery acid and solvents are a particular problem. Even the vapors from these chemicals can weaken a rope. Damage from ultraviolet light is easier to detect, but no less serious. Ropes should be stored in a stuff sack or pack when not in use. Both climbing and static ropes should last for several field seasons if they are well cared for and protected from damage. If one of your ropes becomes damaged or suspect, remove it from service, mark it with a tag explaining the problem, and request a replacement from the BFC. If replacement ropes are not readily available and the damage is localized, you can isolate the damaged section of the rope with a Figure-8 or butterfly knot, with the bad section in the resulting loop. However, this is a stopgap measure and will greatly complicate a crevasse rescue should one become necessary. When in doubt about a rope's condition, be conservative - the life you save may be your own. 12.3 Knots Diagrams of some basic knots used for safe crevasse travel are on the following three pages. See Chapter 17: Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue for more details on when to specifically use each of these knots. Note: Both the Munter Hitch and the Clove Hitch are usually tied in the middle (of the rope) without accessing either end of the rope. This is not intuitively obvious in the following illustrations. * [See figures ROPE 1 and ROPE 2 and ROPE 3] Chapter 13 Stoves The BFC issues four types of portable stoves to field groups. All four stoves operate on the principle of preheating liquid gasoline or kerosene so the fuel pressurizes and exits the jets as a vapor, where it is then ignited. 13.1 Types of Stoves MSR WhisperLite International stove burns white gas (Coleman fuel) or kerosene (with a change of the stove's jets). It's the lightest of the stoves issued (17.8 ounces without fuel). It is issued as the emergency stove in all helo/survival bags. * [See figure STOVE 3] The Optimus 111 stove burns white gas (Coleman fuel) or kerosene. This is a compact stove (approximately 7 x 7 x 4 inches) and very reliable. In the field, it's used both as a primary stove and as a back-up or emergency stove. * [See figure STOVE 1] The Coleman 2-Burner stove burns white gas only (Coleman fuel). It's a large stove that allows two large cookpots to be heated at the same time. This is also the most maintenance-free stove that the BFC issues. * [See figure STOVE 2] The MSR XGK stove burns a variety of fuels: white gas (Coleman fuel), Mogas, kerosene, or JP-8 (with a change of the stove's jets). It's lightweight (18.5 ounces without fuel) and is used primarily as a back-up or emergency stove. * [See figure STOVE4] 13.2 Stove Safety Liquid-fuel stoves are potentially hazardous due to the flammability of the fuels used and the toxicity of the vapors they produce (carbon monoxide). Deaths have occurred in the Antarctic due to improper stove use. When using a stove in the field, make sure to follow the safety measures listed below. 1. Do not use stoves without adequate ventilation. 2. Do not release fuel tank pressure near an open flame. 3. Use extreme caution when refueling. Skin contact with supercooled fuel will cause instant frostbite. 4. Check for leaks before every use. 5. Release pressure in the fuel tank before packing and storing. 6. Pack stoves and fuel away from food. 7. Do not cook in mountain tents (the VE-25 or Westwind) except in emergencies. Preheat the stove outside of the tent. 8. Test all stoves at the BFC or on a shakedown trip before your field deployment. 9. Insulate the base of the stoves so that they won't melt through tent floors. Should a person's clothing become ignited, Stop, Drop, and Roll to extinguish flames. Residues left from evaporated gasoline are combustible. 13.3 Stove Operating Instructions Optimus 111 1. Fill the tank 7/8ths full with white gas (Coleman fuel). Check the tank cap seal by holding the stove upside down and looking for leaks. 2. Clean the jet/nipple by turning the regulating key quickly all the way open and back again. 3. Preheat the stove by opening the regulating key and pumping the tank, spilling white gas into the preheating cup. Close the regulating key, and light the fuel in cup. Pump the stove 10 to 20 times. When the flame in the preheating cup burns down, turn on regulating key and ignite the stove. A "thimble-full" of Meta-paste can be used to preheat the stove instead of white gas in the preheating cup. 4. Adjust the flame with the regulating key and by pumping the tank. To extinguish the flame, turn the stove off by turning the regulating key clockwise. Coleman 2-Burner 1. Fill the tank 7/8ths full with white gas (Coleman fuel). Check the tank cap seal by holding the fuel tank upside down and looking for leaks. 2. Pump the tank 10 to 20 times, with the control valve closed. Plug the tank and generator into the stove so that it fits securely in the proper spot. (The generator rod should be plugged into burner body). 3. Make sure that the secondary burner regulating key (on left side of stove) is turned off. 4. Turn the lighter stem on the generator/valve assembly to the Up position. 5. Open the control valve and light the primary (right) burner. After 1 minute of burning, turn the lighter stem to the down position. Adjust the flame with the control valve and by pumping up the tank. 6. The second (left) burner can now be ignited by turning on the regulating key on the left side of the stove and lighting the burner with a match. Note: You can effectively preheat this stove by putting white gas or Meta-paste in the primary burner bowl under the generator stem, lighting it, and allowing it to burn down before turning on the stove and lighting the stove. MSR WhisperLite International and XGK 1. Fill the fuel bottle 3/4ths full with white gas (Coleman fuel), and screw the fuel pump snugly into the fuel bottle. Turn the fuel bottle upside down and check for leaks. 2. Pump 10 to 20 times. 3. Lubricate the end of the fuel tube on the stove with lip salve, sun cream, saliva, etc. to prevent tearing the "O" ring in the fuel-tube socket. Push the fuel tube into the socket on the pump and swing the catch arm around the pump until it snaps behind the pump and over the control valve. 4. Remove the flame spreader (XGK stove only) and poke the jet clean with the jet cleaning wire. Put the flame spreader back in place. 5. Place the reflector ring over the pan support wires and push it down out of the way of the burner assembly. Open the cylinder wind screen and place around the burner assembly, estimating your cook pot size. 6. Prime the stove by opening the control valve slowly. Let up to one teaspoon of fuel come out of the jet. Close the control valve. Light the spilled fuel (the flame may be quite high -- that is why you should never preheat a stove in a mountaineering tent). 7. When the priming fuel flame is nearly out, slowly open the control valve up to two full turns. If yellow flame shoots forth, rather than blue flame, shut the control valve off and allow the stove to preheat (prime) a little longer. Then slowly reopen the control valve up to two full turns and adjust to desired heat. Remember, there is a time lag between control valve adjustments and the flow of fuel. 8. Adjust the flame with the control valve and by pumping up the fuel bottle. 9. Turn off the stove by closing the control valve until it is just snug. Don't tighten too much or you'll strip the nylon threads and ruin the pump assembly. It will take 10 to 15 seconds for the flame to go out. You can blow it out when it turns to yellow. 10. To release stove pressure, allow the stove to cool down several minutes. Turn the burner upside down and open the control valve. The pressure will escape through the jet. Close the valve when air stops escaping from the jet. 11. Burning kerosene or JP-8 in the WhisperLite and XGK stoves requires changing the jet to the "K" (kerosene) jet. You cannot prime/preheat the stove by spilling kerosene or JP-8 into the spirit cup. You must prime the stove with a flammable fuel such as white gas or Meta-paste. It is recommended to prime the stove aggressively before attempting to open the control valve for stove burning. 13.4 Five Major Stove Problems 1. Insufficient preheating. 2. Clogged jet. 3. Air leak in the system (seals and "O" rings). 4. Wrong jet. 5. Contaminated fuel. 13.5 Stove Troubleshooting Fuel Leakage: At fuel bottle: Fuel cap (or pump) not tight. At connectors: Seals or "O" rings damaged. At pump: Pump valve or seals are damaged. At jet: Control valve is stripped. Limited or No pressure: Pump up fuel tank. No Fuel: No fuel: Tank is empty, jet is clogged, fuel tube is clogged, and/or fuel is too cold. Pump won't Dry cup: Oil the pump cup. work: Dirty pump: Clogged check valve. Reduced Lack of fuel: Check fuel level, Performance pump up pressure-tank. through Jet: Obstructions: Clean jet. Improper jet. Too cold: Improperly insulated from snow; warm fuel tank in sleeping bag. Erratic Pressure too great: Control valve opened Burning/ too far. Surging: Improper jet: Kerosene being burned in "G" jet. Gas being burned in "K" jet: S tove is cold. Burner not adequately pre-heated. Do not purge gasoline stoves with kerosene or JP-8 as this will ruin them! Drain and vent only! Do not leave a venting stove where blowing snow, sand, or dirt could contaminate the fuel tank. Chapter 14 Waste Retrograde All participants in the USAP are required by U.S. Federal Law (45 CFR 670-672) to adhere to procedures set in place while deployed to Antarctica. It is everyone's responsibility to fully comply with the guidance provided in this chapter while at field camps to ensure that all regulatory requirements and treaties are properly implemented and carried out. Recycling is a priority for all individuals and can only be accomplished by adhering to the guidance set forth for field camps and stations. 14.1 Pack-in/Pack-out Personal Items All personal items carried into a field camp by an individual will be carried out by the individual. The Pack-in/Pack-out routine will allow field camps to eliminate several of the waste categories and reduce the number of containers needed to segregate waste. All waste that is packed out will be properly segregated according to the Waste Management Program at the permanent station to which the waste is being returned. 14.2 Waste Groups and Categories The guidelines in this chapter have been compiled to assist you in properly segregating waste. Non-Hazardous Solid Waste has been classified into three groups and color codes based on its disposition in the U.S. The groups are as follows: RECYCLABLES - GREEN DISPOSABLES - BLUE COMBUSTIBLES - YELLOW All groups have been classified into categories based on the characterization of the waste stream. It is mandated to collect and retrograde 100% of ALL waste from the field camps, unless approved to do otherwise. 14.2a Recyclables Group - Green Glass Category Bottles and jars not contaminated with food or hazardous waste will be recycled. All colors of glass can be collected together. No window glass, broken glass, light bulbs (CONSTRUCTION DEBRIS) and reagent bottles go in this category. Label as: GLASS. Aluminum Category Empty aluminum cans may be placed in this category. Label as: ALUMINUM. (Aluminum foil, pans, and wrappers belong in the Combustibles Group with food waste.) Heavy Metal, Wire, Copper and Brass Category All metals except tin cans and sheet metal belong in this category. Label as: METALS. Light Metal Category All clean metal containers and sheet metal belong in this category. Label as: LIGHT METALS. Cardboard Category Nonreusable cardboard boxes are to be flattened and bundled or crated for shipment. Label as: CARDBOARD. Wood Category Reuse all crates and pallets for shipping waste from the field camps. All remaining wood will be dismantled, bundled, and shipped to a permanent station. Label as: WOOD. White Paper Category Clean white paper such as photocopies, computer paper, and other white paper should be put in the proper containers designated for white paper. Label as: WHITE PAPER. Colored paper should be separated and put into "BURNABLES" category. NOTE: It is recommended for small field camps/parties to collect all recyclable categories into plastic bags separately. Once the waste is ready for shipment to the permanent station, tie off all bags and place all into one shipping container (triwall and/or drum). Label as: MIXED RECYCLABLES plus appropriate "CATEGORY NAMES." All fuel-contaminated items must be retrograded from field camps using the Hazardous Wate procedures. 14.2b Combustibles Group - Yellow Burnables, Food Waste, Food Contaminated Containers, Cooking Oil/Lard, Newspapers and Magazines Category All items in this waste category will be consolidated to reduce segregation items. The waste will include food wrappers, food contaminated containers, food waste, paper towels, etc. Waste within this category will be placed in triwalls with 3 plastic liners to avoid leakage. Label as: BURNABLE FOOD WASTE. Human Waste, Domestic Biological Waste Category Items in this category will be collected in 20-gallon poly lab packs with a plastic liner supplied by Waste Management. It is absolutely critical that no other collection methods are used for this type of waste. The cover of the lab pack will be secured tightly when filled. The 20-gallon poly lab pack and waste will be retrograded to the U.S. and incinerated for sterilization purposes. If more than one lab pack is filled at the field camp, an 85-gallon metal over-pack drum should be used to ship this waste from the camp. Label as: HUMAN WASTE 14.2c Disposables Group - Blue Any material or combination of materials free from food contamination that doesn't fit in the RECYCLABLES or COMBUSTIBLES group is designated as a disposable item. Product Containers, Clothing, Construction Debris, Plastics Category This category will also include items such as styrofoam peanuts (ACA banned) and bubble wrap. Please, NO HAZARDOUS WASTE. Label as: CONSTRUCTION DEBRIS. Vermiculite Category Items in this category will be bagged and should be reused whenever possible, otherwise properly placed in triwalls for shipment. Label as: VERMICULITE Grey Water and Urine Category Grey water and urine will be collected separately in 55-gallon poly-lined drums free of chemical and petroleum products. Fuel, oil, and chemical drums are not acceptable for use and if used will be required to be classified as "HAZARDOUS WASTE". Label as: GREY WATER or URINE WASTE. All collection and labeling methods previously described will be used by all field camps unless otherwise indicated. The ASA Safety, Environment, and Health (SEH) Waste Management Division will assist you with any potential modifications due to special field camp requirements. Waste Management personnel will prepare field kits prior to deploying to the field camps at the request of the science party and/or camp manager. 14.3 Labeling Waste Containers All waste will be properly labeled and tagged according to the group and category. All consolidated categories will be placed in containers/plastic bags and sealed into drums and/or triwalls. Waste Management located at the permanent stations will collect the containers/bags and package accordingly for shipment to the U.S. Waste Management will supply the appropriate labels for field camps; however, if you do not have a label available, include the following information on the container(s). Field Camp Name Science Event Number PI and/or Manager Waste Group Waste Category Date 14.4 Hazardous Waste Antarctic Conservation Act (ACA) regulations identify hazardous waste as any waste that contains a "designated pollutant." A designated pollutant is any material identified by any of the U.S. environmental regulations. This definition is much stricter in identifying hazardous wastes than the regulations applicable in the U.S. As a result, many wastes not considered hazardous in the U.S. must be managed as hazardous wastes in Antarctica. The ACA also mandates detailed tracking of hazardous waste from "cradle to grave." To accomplish this, waste generators must provide documentation identifying the hazardous waste. The CSEC or BFC will provide Hazardous Waste Identification forms and drum tags (for field camps) for this purpose. All generators must complete the Hazardous Waste Identification Form or drum tag for all hazardous wastes turned-in and retrograded. The form(s) should accompany the waste when returned to McMurdo from field camps. Directions for completing the form will be provided in the CSEC orientation. It is absolutely critical that all information known about a waste be provided on the form. Additionally, each waste container should have a tag or label identifying the date, S-Event, location, name of the waste, approximate percentage for each constituent of the waste, and process that generated the waste. Without this information, extensive analytical testing is required to identify the waste for shipment and disposal. Each Principal Investigator (PI) is responsible for ensuring that the proper procedures are followed by each member of their science project. 14.4a Hazardous Waste Categories >>From a management standpoint, hazardous waste categories generally fall into the basic hazard classes: Explosive Flammable Corrosive Radioactive Compressed Gas Other, etc. Generalized categories (described below) have been developed to aid generators with proper segregation. However, often times wastes that qualify under a general category may have differing hazard classes. If unsure of the proper segregation, contact the CSEC laboratory staff for further guidance. The following paragraphs describe the generalized categories for segregation. These categories will be used in the CSEC and should be implemented as necessary at field camps. Operations Hazardous Waste Contaminated, used, and excess fuel, oil, glycol, etc. should be retained in or returned to the original container if possible (or an equivalent), and returned to the MEC (helicopter supported camps and McMurdo Operations) or Science Cargo (Hercules supported camps). These containers may have a Hazardous Waste Identification "short form" already attached. Prior to return the form should be completed and signed. Other Waste Items Empty aerosol cans, batteries (alkaline, lithium, Ni-Cad, lead- acid), and light bulbs are collected in segregation containers located in the waste collection areas of the CSEC and BFC. Ask a staff member where items such as leftover product in the container, small broken appliances or tools, and broken window glass should go. At field camps, these items should be segregated by class into drums. A drum tag or "short form' must be attached and completed prior to retrograde. The BFC usually distributes hazardous materials to the appropriate work center when they are returned from the field camps. It is necessary to properly package and label the container with contents, amount, and science-number on the tags provided so it may be properly handled. Laboratory Waste In general, all laboratory wastes should be handled as hazardous and should be properly segregated. This includes not only reagents and mixtures, but also laboratory glass and plastic ware contaminated with either hazardous materials or biologicals, sharps, and other debris (benchliner, gloves, etc). At field camps, these items should be segregated by class into drums. A drum tag or "short form" must be attached and completed prior to retrograde. Bio-Hazardous Waste Bio-hazardous waste is defined as any product that has been contaminated by microorganisms, human tissues, or animal material including secreta, excreta, blood, tissues, or tissue fluids. These wastes should be collected separately from other waste streams in a 55-gallon drum and properly tagged for retrograde. Chemical Wastes Chemical wastes generated in laboratories may fall into any of the hazard classes and must be segregated by their hazard class. Some mixtures can contain constituents with differing hazard classes, making this determination difficult. Consult with the laboratory staff if you have wastes like this. Large volume waste chemicals such as glutaraldehyde, formalin, ethylene glycol, acetone, methanol, etc., will be collected in 2- to 5-gallon approved containers or drums located in the waste collection area. It is necessary to log in the S-Event, quantity, dilution factor, and container contents each time you add waste to the collection container. Please notify the CSEC staff when containers are full so they can be turned over to hazardous waste for retrograde. Small volume chemicals should be packed in the original containers whenever possible and labelled as waste. Containers are also available in the main stock room, if needed. Please label the container as described above and complete a Hazardous Waste Identification Form. These containers are then packed in steel overpack drums lined with heavy plastic bags and cushioned with vermiculite. Photochemical waste should be collected in the labeled 2- to 5-gallon plastic containers located in the darkroom and given to the CSEC laboratory staff when full. Radioactive wastes should be collected according to the procedures and regulations outlined in a separate document distributed at the CSEC orientation. Laboratory Glass All empty reagent bottles, jars, vials, pipettes, glass syringes (without needles), and any other used lab glassware excluding those with highly toxic (see below) or radioactive residuals should go in these containers. They do not need to be rinsed prior to disposal. At field camps, collect these wastes in a properly tagged 55-gallon drum. Laboratory Plastic All empty reagent bottles, jars, vials, pipettes, plastic syringes (without needles), and any other used lab plasticware excluding those with highly toxic (see below) or radioactive residuals. They do not need to be rinsed prior to disposal. At field camps, collect these wastes in a properly tagged 55-gallon drum. Laboratory Debris All non-glass waste containing residual hazardous materials--including gloves, contaminated paper products (non-radioisotope), etc., should be disposed in this bin. At field camps, collect these wastes in a properly tagged 55-gallon drum. Highly Toxic Waste All wastes contaminated with highly toxic chemicals, carcinogens, mutagens, and poisons (i.e., osmium tetroxide, potassium cyanide, etc) should be segregated, clearly labeled, and brought to the attention of the lab staff for turn-over to the Hazardous Waste Department. Needles and Razor Blades (Sharps) All needles, razor blades, and other "sharps" should be disposed in the red sharps containers. Bio-Hazardous Wastes All disposable labware such as plastic beakers, sample bottles, plastic syringes, etc., contaminated with biological materials (excluding live cultures and infectious agents) should be disposed in the LAB GLASS or LAB PLASTIC receptacles. All labware contaminated with live cultures or infectious agents must be autoclaved. After sterilization, any nonhazardous liquid materials, such as phytoplankton cultures, may be disposed of down the sink. Otherwise, these materials should be collected for disposal. Reusable glassware should be washed and returned to the stockroom. Place disposable labware in the proper lab waste receptacle. 14.5 General Waste Handling in The Field Drawings by David Rosenthal Removing food contamination from the waste stream in the Antarctic is very important for the success of waste retrograde and recycling. Food contamination can be removed directly in the field, making the whole retrograde process easier. This is a guide with quick hints from other science field groups for handling waste in the field efficiently. *[See figure WASTE 1] Glass: When preparing a meal from glass jars, make sure to remove all contents by using the rubber spatula provided in the Kitchen Box. Before any jar contents dry,wash jar(s) in used dish water. If washed directly after dishes, no extra gray water or time is needed. If you use snow to clean your dishes, it works just as well for glass. Metal: When empty, cans should be opened at both ends, remaining contents scraped out, and cans washed in used dish water or snow. Cans must have labels removed and be flattened. This reduces their volume, allowing easier transport back to McMurdo. Aluminum: This consists of aluminum beverage cans only. Cans should be empty and crushed to reduce volume. They will be shredded and crushed further in McMurdo for shipment to the U.S. Aluminum cans are easily and successfully recycled. Plastic: Plastic food wrappers and containers should be cleaned like glass or metal containers. A small amount of contamination can cause rejection of a whole shipment to the U.S. Diminish the amount of plastic(s) in the field by removing items from their packaging prior to departing for the field camp. Plastic is not recyclable, blows around, and harms wildlife. * [See figure WASTE 2] Gray Water: This is nonhazardous "used water" (dish water, used cooking water, etc.). Gray water is strained and stored in 55-gallon drums that are shipped back to McMurdo for retrograde. No other liquid waste Notes on Field Latrines A weighted lid should be placed on top of the lined drum to keep both the lid and the can from blowing away. Handle the drums of waste carefully to prevent punctures. This will make everyone's task of disposing of human waste easier and more pleasant. The seat provided can be placed on top of the can for your comfort. Please drum any and all human waste in 20-gallon Poly Pack drums. Chapter 15 Snowmobiles The Mechanical Equipment Center (MEC) issues snowmobiles. You must attend a mandatory snowmobile/skidoo maintenance course at the MEC before your field deployment. 15.1 Snowmobiles in the MEC Inventory ELAN (275 lbs): A light-duty, 250 cc, Twin Otter transportable snowmobile which is not suitable for traverses. CHEYENNE (350 lbs): A medium-duty, 503 cc snowmobile which is not suitable for traverses. ALPINE 1 (650 lbs): A heavy-duty, Twin Otter transportable snowmobile. Available with a 640 cc or 503 cc engine, it is suitable for extensive traverses and preferred for remote camp work. ALPINE 2 (800 lbs), a heavy-duty snowmobile, suitable for remote camps and traverses. All snowmobiles have two-stroke engines that require Mogas fuel pre-mixed with a lubricating oil. The mixture is 50:1 (12 ounces of oil to 5 gallons of Mogas). Average fuel consumption when pulling a loaded (1,000 pounds) Nansen sled is approximately 7 miles per gallon. Park skidoos facing into the prevailing wind and always cover them. This helps avoid getting snow in the points and accumulating snow under the snowmobile's cowling. 15.2 Snowmobile Troubleshooting 15.2a Fuel Flow Problems Symptoms: Engine cranks but won't run, no fuel present in line from pump to carb. Engine may run briefly after priming. Diagnosis and Cure: 1. Check fuel level in tank. 2. Pry fuel line off carb, pressurize the fuel tank (seal and blow into the vent line) to see if fuel flows out of the end of fuel line. Crank engine and see if fuel pulses out of the end of the fuel line. 3. If fuel flows and then pumps OK, the problem was probably just small ice crystals in the fuel pump valves. Pressurizing the tank dislodged them, thus solving the problem. Replace the line and go. 4. If fuel flows when pressurized but does not pump, the problem is fuel-pump-related. First disconnect the vacuum pulsation line from the center of the fuel pump to the engine crankcase. Blow through the line - if blocked, clean ice out of the line with a wire. Check the nipples on the pump and crankcase for obstructions. If the vacuum line is clear but fuel still does not pump, replace the pump or remove it and let it thaw. 5. If fuel will neither pump or flow, then either the fuel line or the fuel filter is clogged. Clean the fuel line or replace the filter. 6. If the tank is under vacuum when you open the filler, check the vent line for obstructions or pinches. Occasionally the line will rub against the exhaust, melting the vent hose. Make sure the tank is venting properly. 7. If all of the above steps have been tried and still no fuel flows, check the fuel line for cracks or holes, and look for any obvious fuel leaks (i.e., discolored snow) in the engine compartment. Repair or replace the fuel line. 8. A mixture of 30 mL of isopropyl alcohol per 5 gallons of pre-mixed Mogas will lessen the chance of water contamination and fuel icing. 9. Pouring fuel through a trail flag or rag placed over a funnel will help eliminate any snow contamination of the tank and will filter the fuel. 15.2b Starter and/or Cranking Problems Symptoms: Engine cranks slowly or not at all when key is turned. Diagnosis and Cure: 1. Usually this problem indicates a dead battery, and requires pull-starting the engine. The battery can be charged with an A.C. charger; however, it should charge on its own with skidoo usage, unless the battery is shorted or the rectifier is faulty. 2. If the battery is fine, check the in-line fuse (30 amp) in the red wire near the starter, or see if the red-green wire has slipped off the terminal on the starter solenoid. Finally, the starter itself may be faulty. 3. The recoil (pull) starter should be used when the engine is cold, so the electric starter is not overtaxed. 15.2c Spark Problems Symptoms: Engine cranks but won't start. Fuel is present in the line between fuel tank and carb. Diagnosis and Cure: Unhook both spark plugs, push the spare plugs in the wire caps, ground the metal plug bodies to the metal engine housing, and crank the engine. If a spark can be seen at the electrode of the spare plugs, the problem may be that the installed plugs were fouled with excessive fuel, ice, or a piece of carbon. Install new plugs or clean the existing ones. When the engine is cold, the spark may be hard to see in direct sunlight. Caution: Do not remove spark plugs for this test. If you have a spark and the crankcase is full of fuel, a fire could start. If a spark is not present, the problem is in the electrical system rather than spark plugs. First, check the kill switches and all electrical connectors. If they check out OK, the solution of the problem depends on the engine type. 640 cc Engine: Problem is probably ice in the points (this mostly occurs after exposure to blowing snow). Remove rewind starter and starter pulley, rotate magneto housing until upper point set is visible, spray with alcohol, scrape with file, spray with WD-40, repeat for lower point set, and reassemble. 503 cc Engine: Electronic ignition -- problem is probably the igniter box. Replace. Either engine: Still no spark -- may be a bad coil or a shorted wire. 15.2d Power Problems Symptoms: Runs but lacks power. Diagnosis and Cure: If the engine seems to be running fine, but the skidoo has trouble with uphill starts, the problem may be with the clutch-driven pulley. Remove the cowling and see where the belt is riding on the pulley. The belt should be along the outer edge of the driven pulley when the skidoo is at rest. If the belt is instead slotted down between the driven pulley halves, lubricate the driven pulley shaft, taking care not to lubricate the pulley faces, shift transmission into neutral, and alternately rev engine and apply brake until the belt works its way to the outer edge. If the engine has very low power or dies when revved, remove the carb and check for ice. If ice is present, thaw out carb and reinstall. If the engine is weak and running rough, but the carb is ice-free, the problem may be a bad spark in one cylinder. Follow the procedures outlined above for cleaning/replacing spark plugs. Altitude Adjustment: Assess mixture by hill climbing performance and spark plug color. Chocolate brown is correct; gray or white is too lean, while black is too rich. From sea level to 4,000 feet decrease the jet size by one increment from standard setting (i.e., 290 to 280): At 4,000 feet to 6,000 feet decrease by two increments. At 8,000 to 11,000 feet decrease by four increments. Remember to richen up the mixture when returning to lower altitudes, under penalty of blown-up engines. 15.2e Track/Suspension Problems Symptoms: Machine pulls to one side. Diagnosis and Cure: Check for loose or broken bogie sets. Each operator should be made responsible for checking their machine before use. Daily: Check suspension, particularly when on glacier ice or sea ice. Look for broken bogie sets. Check general operations on vehicle. Make sure bogie bungy is in place. Weekly: Check for loose mounting bolts on bogies, skis (particularly the two bolts through the spring), rear suspension and steering (especially the two nuts on the transmission case). A small suspension problem can rapidly get bigger (slashed tracks, broken bogie mounts, etc.). Keep an eye on the track's adjustment. Keep the track centered between link plates. Watch track tension - there should be a distance of 1-3/4" (this equals 2nd two joints of your 3rd finger) from track above bogies to frame edge below forward end of rail. Beware of loose trailing straps and ropes; they can get entangled in the tracks and around axles. Be kind to transmissions and shift gently. If gear(s) will not engage, turn off motor, shift gears and restart. Abusive shifting can cause drive train problems that are not repairable in the field. Never shift the transmission unless the snowmobile is stopped. Note: LC-130 transport can result in skidoo damage either from abuse or during loading. Supervise the loading and inspect your machines as much as possible. Many thanks to Dr. Bill McIntosh for his invaluable input. Chapter 16 Sea Ice Ice that forms on the surface of the sea in the McMurdo Sound area is generally considered safe for travel from late August to mid-December. However, certain hazardous conditions exist on the sea ice at any time of the season. Past experience with equipment (and occasionally personnel) lost through the ice indicates the need for education, common sense, and the use of caution when travelling over sea ice. This chapter provides basic information on preparations for travel on the sea ice and identification of hazards while on the ice. To ensure safe operations on the sea ice, your field party should enroll in the Field Safety Training Program's (FSTP) Sea Ice course. 16.1 Preparations Before Leaving Base Before you travel on the sea ice, read and understand the "Sea Ice Procedures for the USAP," and take the FSTP Sea Ice course if required. Check your vehicle carefully during a walk-around inspection. Check fluid and fuel levels, and inspect the tracks for any points that are loose or show excessive wear. Assemble and load your equipment, including the following items: ECW Gear Extra Food and Water Survival Bag Kovacs Ice Auger with Extensions Extra Ice Auger Bits, Sharpened Bit File Ice Axes Square Shovel Ice Screws, Assorted Rope (Old Climbing Rope) Carabiners Slings: 1 Short and 1 Long Throw Bags (see the BFC staff on how to assemble) Radio, with Spare Battery Call the weather office and ask for the current weather for the area in which you'll be working, as well as a forecast for that area. Check out via radio or phone with Mac Center (or the appropriate communications center) just before you go onto the sea ice. Give your vehicle identification number, the driver's last name, the number of "souls" (individuals) on board, your destination, and the time you expect to return to McMurdo. Remember to check back in via radio or phone when you return to base. 16.2 Safety Tips for Traveling on Sea Ice -Keep your eyes open, and scan from side to side as you're driving looking for hazards. -Don't travel off the flagged roads if surface ice conditions are obscured. -Stay well away from the coastline, islands, and landed objects such as grounded icebergs. Working cracks tend to form around these. Stay away from large concentrations of seals. *[See figures SEAICE 1 and SEAICE 2] -Don't blindly cross melt pools - you don't know the condition of the ice in the bottom of these pools. -Don't trust existing vehicle tracks over a crack without checking it out first. * [See figure SEAICE 3] -In areas of heavy snow deposits, look for small cracks or a continuous shallow depression on the snow surface. These will alert you to underlying cracks in the ice. -Never travel over ice thinner than 30 inches (75 cm). This 30- inch rule is an NSF regulation, providing a safe margin of error for all sea ice travel. -The strength of ice declines as the temperature of the ice increases. This is importantto remember in December. Sea Ice Seasonal Period Temperatures Ice Surface Seasonal Temperature Time of Year Period in Fahrenheit (Approximate) 1 4 to 14 WINFLY to late November 2 14 to 23 Late November to mid-December 3 23 to 27 Mid-December to early January 4 27 to 28.5 Early January to February 16.3 Sea Ice Hazards 16.3a Weather Weather can, and generally will, turn bad while you're out on the sea ice. It's important to continually monitor "Herbie Alley" and Mt. Discovery for signs of approaching bad weather. Watch for a lowering ceiling of clouds against Mt. Discovery and the eventual disappearance of Mt. Discovery. Fog blowing in from open water in McMurdo Sound or blowing snow can disorient you just as quickly as any Condition I storm. More importantly, poor weather conditions will obscure surface definition, making it impossible to detect cracks. 16.3b Sea Ice Cracks Cracks are fissures or fractures in the sea ice produced by the stresses of wind, wave, and tidal action and thermal forces. There are four types of cracks generally found in McMurdo Sound. -Tidal Cracks occur in fast ice when the tidal action moves the sea ice above or below the level at which it is shorebound. -Straight-Edge Cracks (see diagram below) form as tension is released in the ice sheet. The ice thickness at the edge of this crack will be the same as the surrounding ice thickness. These cracks typically form quickly, and the crack shows either open water or a thin layer of ice covered with snow. *[See figure SEAICE 4] -Spreading Cracks form as forces acting on the ice sheet cause the ice to crack and spread apart over time. These cracks tend to form slowly, and can stay active for quite some time. The center of actively spreading cracks may be open water or thin ice. The safe edges of these cracks are difficult to judge without getting out of your vehicle and profiling the crack. See the diagram on the following page. *[See figures SEAICE 5 and SEAICE 6] Pressure Ridges (see the photo below) form when ice is broken by pressure and thrusts up into a chaotic pattern of elevations and depressions. Use caution when crossing pressure ridges, as the uneven chunks of ice can be hazardous to your footing. Occasionally, pressure ridges may pull apart, forming a combination Spreading/Pressure Ridge. * [See figure SEAICE 7] 16.3c Locations of Cracks You can generally expect to find cracks anywhere on the sea ice. However, certain sites historically produce a series of cracks year after year. Typically, cracks will form around any coastline, island, grounded iceberg, or glacier jutting out into the sea ice. These cracks tend to radiate out from the land, similar to the spokes of a wheel. For example, Cape Armitage, Hut Point, Knob Point, Turtle Rock, Erebus Ice Tongue, the Delbridge Islands, and Cape Evans are all areas where you can expect to find cracks. See the map of cracks on the following page. * [See figure ICETONG 7] 16.3d Thin Ice Thin ice is a hazard encountered soon after McMurdo Sound has frozen over in the winter. It can also pose a problem at the center of active or newly formed cracks, especially if the thin ice has been covered with snow. Thin ice can form around shoals, where water currents may cause the sea ice to erode from below. As the air and sea temperature starts to rise, the sea ice becomes progressively weaker and starts to thin, both from the top and bottom. Ice temperature monitoring stations will be established at various locations and monitored on a regular basis. 16.3e Melt Pools Melt pools (see the photo below) are areas on the sea ice that have subsurface melting. This usually occurs later in the season, typically in late November through December. An ice lens usually forms over the melt water, giving the impression that it's solid. Always drive around melt pools. If it's impossible to drive around a melt pool, get out of your vehicle and drill the underlying ice to determine its thickness. * [See figure SEAICE 8] 16.3f The Ice Edge The ice edge can be dangerous because there is always the possibility of breakouts, at any time in the season. Travel to the ice edge should be undertaken during periods of good weather and calm sea conditions. Also, you need to be alert to the possibility of attacks by leopard seals (and possibly killer whales). It's a good idea to be roped up and belayed by a team member when working at the ice edge. 16.4 How To Profile A Crack To profile a crack, start by probing aggressively with an ice axe across the crack. Then determine where the safe edges of the crack are, by sliding the pick of the axe over the surface. Drill test holes approximately 15 inches apart starting in the center of the crack to determine its effective width. (See the photo below.) The effective width should be no more than 1/3rd of the length of your vehicle's track. * [See figure SEAICE 9] Chapter 17 Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue Crevasses can be difficult to detect and are frequently invisible under thin bridges of blown snow. Many of these bridges may be only a few inches thick and will not support the weight of a person or a vehicle. Roped travel is a necessity in any glaciated area which has not been previously inspected and deemed safe. However, do not assume that a previously traveled and marked route is safe. Glaciers are moving by their very definition and new crevasses can open up at any time. Known routes should be periodically inspected. Steep terrain or the faster-moving glaciers of the coast require more frequent reconnaissance than the relatively slow-moving glaciers of the polar plateau. Practicing proper rope travel techniques can decrease, but never eliminate, the chances of an injury or loss of equipment in the event of a fall. The best advice for travelling in crevassed areas is to be careful and avoid falls in the first place. It's easier to stay out of a crevasse than to extract someone out of one. 17.1 Roping Up Proper roped travel technique achieves the following three goals: 1. Slack rope in the system is kept to an absolute minimum in order to shorten the length of a potential fall. 2. Only one member of a rope team will be on the same snow bridge at the same time. 3. There will always be enough excess rope available in the system to reach a fallen victim should they need assistance while suspended in the crevasse. The standard method of tying in to the rope uses a 150-foot or 165-foot climbing rope divided up into various lengths depending upon how many people will be on the rope (see the description of rope types and uses in Chapter 12: Rope Use and Care). In most circumstances, 40-to 45-feet is the optimum distance between members of a rope team. This distance will be long enough to allow a team to cross most crevasses without having more than one member on a bridge at the same time, but short enough to facilitate communicating within the team in poor weather or when negotiating complicated terrain. All team members should place their prussiks on the rope or have their mechanical ascenders and slings accessible whenever they rope up. If using prussiks, place the longer leg prussik on the rope closer to you and place the shorter waist prussik further away and clipped into the locking carabiner on your harness. Tuck the extra slack of the leg prussik away in a pocket or wrap it around the coil in such a way as to keep it accessible but also out of the way (to prevent tripping on it or having it get caught up in other equipment). For all teams operating in areas with consistently larger crevasses, the distance between people on the rope has to be extended. The first person must carry extra rope to allow for the increased distances between people. The last person on the rope must carry a second rope in order to have enough rope available to perform a rescue. In any case, rescuers will always need to have 5-to 10-feet more of rope available for a rescue than the length of the safety rope connecting the rescuer to their partner, as the falling climber's rope will dig into the lip of the crevasse more than the rescuer's rope. * [See figure GLACIER 1] For rope teams with two members, each person ties a Figure-8 knot 20-feet to either side of the center of the rope, and clips into the loop with two locking carabiners on their harness. (See the diagram on the following page.) The locking carabiners should be rotated so that their gates oppose each other. Carry the remaining rope on either end in coils around your body or stuffed into your pack. Coils are preferable because they allow you to take off your pack more easily. In this scenario, the furthest your partner could be away is 40-to 45-feet. Each person has 55-feet of available spare rope to use in a rescue. * [See figure GLACIER 2] For rope teams with three members, use the same 40- to 45-foot distance between people, with the middle person positioned at the middle of the rope. (See the diagram below.) The people at either end must still carry extra rope to allow for a rescue. * [See figure GLACIER 3] For rope teams of four or five people, the group should be evenly spaced along the full length of the rope. Instead of clipping into Figure-8 loops on the rope, the two end people should tie directly into their harnesses using a Figure-8 follow through, thus avoiding having to use carabiners. If only one member falls in a crevasse, the team will always have enough extra rope available between people on the surface to reach the victim in the hole. * [See figure GLACIER 4] Rope teams of more than five people are not recommended. Large rope teams of four or five people are slow and cumbersome. Unless the team is very inexperienced, it's usually better to break the group into two smaller teams. Besides the added convenience and flexibility, this also provides the benefit of having an extra rope available for a rescue or the ability to send a team for help. 17.2 Crevasse Rescue In the event of a crevasse fall, you'll need to have the equipment, skills, and knowledge to quickly perform a rescue, while working without outside help or resources. Speed is important to treat any injuries and to avoid the risk of hypothermia to the victim. Self sufficiency is a requirement because of remote locations and uncertain communications in the Antarctic. The following is a minimum list of equipment required for crevasse rescue and should be carried on each end of the rope. 2 Anchors (Flukes, pickets, or ice screws as appropriate) 2 Pulleys 2 Locking Carabiners 3 Non-locking Carabiners 1 Four-foot Runner 1 Extra Prussik (In addition to the waist and foot prussiks carried for self rescue.) 17.2a The Rescue The first possibility in a crevasse fall is that the victim is conscious and uninjured. The victim can either climb or prussik out of the crevasse under their own power. The rescuer can help the victim by doing the following: 1. Lowering a rope and hauling up the victim's pack; 2. Padding the lip of the crevasse by sliding an ice axe, pack, skis, etc., under the loaded robe; 3. Dropping an extra rope so the victim can prussik up the second line; and, 4. Tying a series of loops at the lip so that the victim can use them as a rope ladder for climbing up and over the last few feet of the crevasse's lip. The second scenario is that the victim is conscious but physically unable to rescue themselves. The rescuer will have to haul this victim out of the crevasse, but may not have to rappel down, depending on the extent of the injuries. This section provides instructions for one technique to extract a victim from a crevasse. The third possibility is that the victim is unconscious or has suffered an obviously serious injury, requiring the rescuer to rappel into the crevasse and administer first aid before hauling the victim out. The worst case scenario would be a rope team of two with one member unconscious some feet down in a crevasse. In this case, the rescuer would have to do the following: 1. Catch the fall 2. Build an anchor 3. Transfer the weight onto the anchor 4. Approach the lip of the crevasse and assess the site (see the "Note" below) 5. Rappel to the victim and treat their injuries 6. Improvise a chest harness to keep the victim upright 7. Prussik back to the surface 8. Build a 6:1 pulley system; and, 9. Haul the victim out all the way over the lip of the crevasse. Your group should practice each of these skills until each of you is confident that you can perform them under the pressure of a real rescue. Note: The rescuer should always make sure he/she is safely secured before approaching the lip of the crevasse to help the victim. See the diagrams of anchor types on the following three pages. * [See figures GLACIER 5 and GLACIER 6 and GLACIER7] 17.2b Catching a Fall The difficulty of catching a fall is dependent upon how much slack there is in the rope. When your team is walking roped up, there should be only enough slack to let the rope lie on the surface of the snow (and not pull on the other members of the party). Never carry extra coils of rope in your hands, as they will add to the distance of the fall and increase the impact forces on both the rescuer and the victim. In an area where crevasses are expected and there is enough concern for the leader to start probing, the second person on the rope should keep the rope tight enough to raise it off the ground. This will further reduce the length of a fall by 2- to 3-feet. In the event of a fall, the victim shouts "falling" if they have the time, and the other climbers take a step away from the fall to take up the slack before dropping to a self arrest position. In a majority of falls, the victim will be caught by the rope before they have fallen deeper than their waist, or at worst, their shoulders. From this position, it should be relatively easy for the victim to climb back onto solid snow, and the rescuer can wait in a self arrest position. Should a large bridge collapse, or other circumstance arise where the victim is deep enough to be out of sight, the rescuer should immediately begin the process of building an anchor. 17.2c Building an Anchor Once established in a secure self arrest position, the rescuer needs to escape the system. Kick your feet into the snow or ice as deeply as possible until you feel comfortable working with your hands off the ice axe. From this position, you can safely build an anchor using a picket, fluke, or ice screw as conditions dictate. When satisfied with the anchor, get out your leg prussik (already on the rope), or a mechanical ascender with a long sling attached, and clip it into the anchor with a locking carabiner. * [ See figure GLACIER 8] Slowly let the weight of the victim onto the anchor by backing up towards the crevasse until all the victim's weight is either on your leg prussik or mechanical ascender. During this process, you should stay in a self arrest position in order to catch the victim (and yourself) in the event the anchor fails. Once the anchor has taken the weight, pull on the anchor with your own weight to test it while still remaining in a self arrest position to catch a fall. By this time, your confidence in the anchor must be absolute. If the anchor fails after you leave the self arrest position, the victim (and possibly you) will likely be killed. If the anchor is solid, you can now leave the self arrest position to build another anchor behind the primary one. Clip this backup anchor into the locking carabiner already on the primary anchor. Remember: The area behind the primary anchor will not have been probed for crevasses, and you're at risk of finding a crevasse of your own. You must stay clipped into the system until you have probed all the working areas and know the extent of crevasses in the area. * [See figure GLACIER 9] 17.2d Checking the Victim The next priority is to check on condition of the victim. Remove and uncoil the extra rope you are carrying, and tie a Figure-8 knot on a bight as close as possible to the anchor, and clip it in. This will back up the prussik or mechanical ascender that the victim is hanging from, and give a solid anchor point for a rappel if that should become necessary. You must then estimate how far it is to the lip of the crevasse where the victim disappeared and measure that off on your rope, allowing a few extra feet of slack. Tie a Figure-8 on a bight and clip it to your harness. Next, a waist prussik or ascender should be switched from the victim's rope to the slack line as close as possible to the anchor, and then clipped back into the harness. Your prussik or ascender will be your belay as you probe for crevasses and approach the lip of the hole, while the Figure-8 on the bight will serve as a backup should the belay fail. * [See figure GLAC 10 and GLAC 11] Approach the hole where the victim disappeared by probing an area slightly to the side of the line to the victim. There is less chance of knocking snow or ice onto the victim if the hole/crevasse is not approached from directly above. Carefully probe the entire approach to the crevasse, looking for other crevasses and determining the extent of the lip over the victim. Slide the prussik or ascender as you go. After you've probed the area and deemed it safe, you'll unclip from the rope to perform the rescue - it is critical that you are sure that the working area is safe. When you've reached the lip of the crevasse, check on the victim. In the worst case scenario of an unconscious or gravely injured victim, you'll need to rappel down to the victim on the spare rope, using a prussik as a back up. Take with you a first aid kit and any extra warm clothing or a sleeping bag to treat and bundle the victim. Pad the lip of the crevasse under your rappel line to prevent the rope from digging into the snow. After you've treated the victim, make an improvised chest harness using a long sling and an extra prussik and turn the victim so that their back is facing the wall of the crevasse. This prevents the victim from suffocating by being dragged face first through the snow. The process of hauling out an unconscious victim can easily take over an hour. Be sure the victim is well bundled to prevent hypothermia before you begin your climb up to the surface. Retrieve any climbing hardware the victim has with them, particularly the prussiks, before you climb up. * [See figure GLAC 12] 17.2e The Hauling System Once you've reached the surface, the next step is to set up the haul system. First the crevasse lip under the rope to the victim must be padded by sliding an ice axe, pack, skis, etc., under the loaded rope. If possible, anchor the padding to the top surface to prevent it from becoming dislodged and landing on the victim. * [See figure GLAC 13] Clip another carabiner into the carabiner attaching the foot prussiks to the anchor. At this point, it's safe to unclip the Figure-8 knot attaching the rope to the anchor, and allow the victim to hang from the leg prussik or ascender momentarily (see diagrams above). Untie the Figure-8 knot, put a pulley on the rope and clip it into the extra carabiner on the anchor (this is the static pulley - see diagram the following page. Remove the self belay waist prussik from the slack rope and install it on the rope to the victim about 2/3rds of the way to the edge of the crevasse. Place a section of the free rope through a pulley and attach the pulley to the waist prussik with another carabiner. * [See figure GLAC 14] Attempt to haul the victim up by pulling on the free end of the rope. This will be extremely difficult if working alone, but reasonable if two or more rescuers are pulling. As the victim is pulled up, the foot prussik may jam in the static pulley unless it is loosened so the rope slides freely through it. Continue the hauling until the moving pulley reaches the static pulley. At this point you'll take the slack out of the foot prussik and slowly let the load out until the prussik takes the weight. Slide the waist prussik towards the victim as far as it is safe, and then repeat the process until the victim is either stuck at the lip or out of the crevasse. Note: This system gives the rescuer a 3:1 mechanical advantage, and it is possible to exert large forces on the victim and the anchors inadvertently. Any change in resistance in the haul line should be investigated immediately to avoid injury to the victim or overstressing the anchor. If you are working alone, it's probable that you'll need more than a 3:1 mechanical advantage to haul a victim out by yourself. You can gain a better advantage by adding a 2:1 system to the 3:1, for an effective advantage of 6:1. Starting with the 3:1 system described previously, find the very end of the free rope and clip it in to the anchor with a Figure-8 knot (see diagram on the following page). Then tie a second Figure-8 on a bight as close to the moving pulley as possible. Using a carabiner or another pulley if one is available, attach the free rope to the Figure-8 just mentioned. The rope coming out of the carabiner or pulley that was just installed becomes the haul line, and the victim is pulled up by pulling it in. Once the Figure-8 knot reaches the anchor, shift the weight to the leg prussik and move the waist prussik back toward the crevasse lip. * [See figure GLAC 15] After several cycles, re-tie the Figure-8 loop that the last pulley is attached to, closer to the pulley. (It's not necessary to untie the old knot, and it would be difficult anyway because it's been under a load.) Repeat these steps until the victim is out of the hole. Rescuers should know also how to construct a 2:1 pulley system independent of the 6:1 system described earlier. It is useful for providing a quick pull to help a conscious victim over the lip, and also to haul victims all the way out if there is a large group of people to do the hauling. 1. Build an anchor and clip a free end of the rope to it. 2. Install a pulley on the rope with a locking carabiner attached. 3. Lower this pulley to the victim on a bight of rope and clip it to their harness. 4. Haul on the free end of the rope until the victim is retrieved. Have the free end of the rope belayed by an extra rescuer or attach a prussik between the rope and the anchor, and slide it up the rope to provide a belay as the line is hauled in. * [See figure GLAC 16] Generally, the hardest part of extracting an unconscious victim from a crevasse is getting them over the lip. Once the victim has been raised to the lip, you'll have to attach a prussik to the haul line and go to the edge. Carefully excavate the snow at the lip until there is a gradually sloping ramp to haul the victim onto. If the haul rope is under tension, a vertical tug on the victim will frequently cause them to slide up the ramp because of the rope stretch. You may have to repeat this process several times before the victim is all the way up. * [See figure glac 17] 17.3 Conclusions Crevasse rescue is a strenuous, complicated process that is difficult under the best of conditions, and cannot be completed without prior practice. The possession of a manual is no substitute for the possession of skills once an accident happens. Rescuers not only need to know how to perform a standard "textbook" rescue, but should have enough understanding of the concepts to improvise solutions to more complicated scenarios. There have been many crevasse incidents in the past several years in Antarctica - and many more near misses. Many of these crevasse falls happened to parties with years of Antarctic experience in areas where crevasses were not expected. Field parties must be extremely careful to avoid falls - and be prepared to deal with them if falls do occur. Chapter 18 Roped Travel with Snowmobiles and Sleds in Crevassed Areas Crevasses are dangerous, especially when traveling with machinery. Avoid crevassed areas if possible, even if it entails making a considerable detour. To date, no one in the USAP has been killed as a result of a snowmobile (skidoo) crevasse fall, but there have been numerous close calls. It's only a matter of time before a death occurs if greater attention is not given to safety. Personnel have been killed in a crevasse fall where snowmobiles were not involved. Limited field testing has been carried out on the actual effectiveness of the methods described in this chapter. The results have been sobering in regard to the difficulty of stopping a fall, especially at speeds higher than 5 mph and/or with slack rope between the snowmobiles. The driver of a machine that falls in a crevasse is virtually assured of severe injury. This means that detection of crevasses and good route-finding to avoid dangerous areas are essential to safe travel. Always have the capability to rope snowmobiles and drivers when travelling on a glacier. Be aware that glacial conditions vary enormously in Antarctica, from one year to the next. Glacial conditions can change in a few weeks in some areas of Antarctica. In areas where there is any possibility of crevasses, roped travel should be used. It is often very difficult to detect crevasses. Stop and probe ahead if you're at all suspicious. Act conservatively and operate within a wide margin of safety. Roped travel with snowmobiles should be practiced with an experienced person in a realistic area prior to beginning a trip. Make sure the Field Safety Training staff knows that you'll be traveling in areas that may be crevassed, and that you need to practice roped travel. There are numerous systems for travelling through crevassed areas with roped snowmobiles and sleds, and safer options are always being sought. Please feel free to question the systems described in this chapter and provide constructive comments. The information provided here does not substitute for training or experience. 18.1 General Points for Roped Travel with Snowmobiles and Sleds in Crevassed Areas 18.1a Aerial Reconnaissance Aerial and satellite photographs provide an excellent source of information regarding crevasse locations. Direct aerial reconnaissance from the flight deck should include viewing proposed routes of travel from the air and marking the positions of crevasses on a map. Crevasses are more easily detected when the sun is at a low angle. 18.1b Tow Ropes Tow ropes are used to connect the lead snowmobile to the sled(s) and/or snowmobile(s) behind it. Tow ropes are separate from, and in addition to, the safety ropes. Tow rope diameters of 3/4" to 1" (22-mm) nylon twisted rope are recommended. Twin 1/2" ropes (or larger) are a good alternative. In BFC field testing, Figure-8 knots tied every meter in the tow ropes, dramatically increased the fall-catching ability of the roped-snowmobile train. The length (distance between snowmobile and sled) should be 15- to 20-meters. This length can be halved when you're not in a linked travel mode (i.e., when one snowmobile is pulling one sled and is not roped to another snowmobile). The ends of the tow ropes should be tied with Figure-8 knots on a bight, or spliced to 5-ton shackles or locking steel carabiners. A 1.5-meter-long protective sheath (PVC or rubber tubing) should be placed over the tow rope immediately ahead of where it secures to the sled or snowmobile its pulling. Secure the sheath with a piece of cord so that it can't move forward. This end of the tow rope will then be protected by the sheath should a sled or snowmobile run over it. Attach the tow ropes to the snowmobiles and sledges with either 5-ton shackles or steel screwgate carabiners. (Don't use non-locking carabiners.) Note: Engine vibration can unscrew the locking carabiners. Steel carabiners have failed under very light tow loads when the gate is unscrewed. Two steel carabiners with reversed gates will ensure a safer system. Secure carabiner screw gates and shackle pins with wire, tape, or rubber washers, etc. so that they won't unscrew. 18.1c Nansen Sled Back-up Rope With Nansen sleds, it's necessary to loosely tie a back-up tow rope on the underside of the bridges. This rope should be 3/4" or 1" nylon twisted rope and should attach onto each end of the Nansen sled towing rope with the same shackle or carabiner that is used for towing. This back-up tow rope needs to be tensioned in such a way that it does not bear the load unless a large impact occurs. 18.1d Snowmobile Cables All snowmobiles used for travel in crevassed areas should be fitted with a steel cable encircling the snowmobile. The 5-ton shackle on the tow rope must be fitted over this cable when hitching the snowmobile, to ensure that the snowmobile stays belayed to the tow rope in the event a crevasse fall pulls out the snowmobile's hinge plate. 18.1e Tether Switches The tether switch is a thin line that runs from the snowmobile's kill switch to the driver's harness. This tether ensures that the snowmobile will stop (the engine is killed) if a driver falls from the machine. If the tether switch isn't used, the driver may end up hanging beside a spinning snowmobile track, which could cut the driver's rope or result in serious injury. 18.1f Driver Safety When traveling linked, snowmobile drivers should kneel to one side, rather then straddling the seat, so in the event of a crevasse fall there is a better chance to jump or fall clear of the machine. -Only one person should be on each snowmobile. -Helmets should be worn in crevassed areas. -No loose gear should be hanging from the driver's harness. Dangling items can hang up and drag the driver into a crevasse. -All drivers and sled riders should have either prussiks or mechanical ascenders attached to their safety ropes. 18.1g Communication A series of pre-arranged hand signals should be used for communication between linked snowmobiles and sleds. Your field party should have signals for stopping, slower, faster, ok/ready-to-go, crevasse, and any others found to be necessary (i.e., "place flag here," etc.). The hand signals shown on the following page have been used effectively by past field parties. 18.1h Travel Speed Linked travel requires continuous concentration, and is not suited for fast speeds. In BFC field tests, speeds over 5 mph dramatically increased the distance a snowmobile fell, and stopping the fall proved very difficult. When travelling in linked formation, it is vital that you don't allow any slack to develop in the tow rope. Invariably this means that the lead snowmobile will at times be slightly pulling the trailing machines. A slack tow rope will continually be run over and will jam. If you drive over the tow ropes and safety ropes, the system will be compromised. The ropes may break under a load if one of the machines falls into a crevasse. * [See figure ROPEDTR 1] 18.1i Crossing Crevasses Stop and probe all crevasses to determine if they are safe to cross. Probing should be done by the driver of the lead snowmobile. A ski pole, without a basket, will suffice for a probe. If you must cross a crevasse, always do it perpendicular to the line of the crevasse. If a snowmobile or sled starts to break through a snowbridge, experience and circumstances will dictate whether to brake and attempt to hold the fall, or continue driving forward in hopes of getting across before a catastrophic collapse of the snowbridge. In either case, a change of underwear is recommended. 18.1j Stopping a Fall When stopping a fall into a crevasse, apply the brakes and, if possible, quickly kill the engine. The engine will be killed automatically if it's your snowmobile that's falling and you fall off the machine, thereby pulling the tether switch line. In hard snow conditions, rope brakes on the sleds will increase friction and braking ability. If you're a rider on a Nansen sled, and the sled is rigged for it, stand on the footbrake. 18.1k Travel on Foot between Snowmobiles and Sleds In crevassed terrain, you must remain tied in when walking between your snowmobile and the other machines and sleds. Many a crevasse has been found by a driver stepping off their snowmobile (which has a lighter ground pressure than a person on foot), and breaking through a snowbridge that was crossed seconds before without incident by the snowmobile. To walk forward or back to another snowmobile or sled, you can self-belay with a prussik or ascender on your safety line or on a spare rope. A good habit to get into when walking back and forth between machines and sleds is to straddle the tow ropes. 18.2 Tying In The prospect of falling into a crevasse on a snowmobile is extremely frightening. No system presently exists that allows the driver a guaranteed clearance from the snowmobile. There's a high probability of injury occurring to a falling driver. However, the following roping procedures will keep you as safe as possible in the event of a crevasse fall (see diagrams on the following two pages). 18.2a Front Driver Clip the bitter end of an 11-mm climbing rope to your harness with a Figure-8 knot and locking carabiner. Use a prussik or ascender to fine tune the tension. Walk the rope back to the sled or second snowmobile, tie a Figure-8 on a bight, and clip it into the front towing thimble with a locking carabiner. Coil the unused rope neatly and stow it on the sled. If there's a rider on the sled, adjust the remaining portion of the rope, clip it to either the front or rear towing thimble of the sled, and then clip it into the rider's harness with a Figure-8 knot. Stow any extra rope out of the way. Roping up will be much easier and quicker if you cut your safety ropes to the exact lengths needed before you go into the field. The BFC has bulk spools of climbing rope, and can provide assistance on the lengths you'll need. * [See figures ROPEDTR 2 and ROPEDTR 3] Lead drivers should carry a 45-meter climbing rope in a stuff sack (throw-bag style) neatly stowed on the snowmobile. This can be used for probing out ahead of the machine, or to rescue others in the field party. Equip this rope with prussiks or an ascender next to the carabiner (or Figure-8 knot) used to hook onto the driver's harness. 18.2b Rear Driver There are two recommended methods for tying in the second snowmobile. Clipping In Behind: The easiest system to manage is to clip onto the back hitch of the snowmobile you're riding on. Secure the end of a 45-meter rope to your harness with a Figure-8 knot and a locking carabiner. Attach this with a locking carabiner (on a Figure-8 on a bight) to the back hitch of the snowmobile. Make sure the steel cable that encircles the snowmobile runs through the carabiner. Secure the extra rope in a stuff-sack (throw-bag style) and neatly stow it on the rear of the snowmobile out of the way. The extra rope can be used for self-belaying away from the machine using an ascender, and will be handy for rescues. Clipping in behind the snowmobile makes rope management easier, but in a crevasse fall, the driver will be hanging below the machine. Self- rescue will be next to impossible. Clipping In Ahead: Having the rear driver's safety line run ahead to the Nansen sled is potentially a safer system, but is harder to manage. Attach the end of the safety rope to the driver's harness (Figure-8 and locking carabiner). Take the line forward and attach it to the rear towing thimble on the Nansen sled with a locking carabiner. Use a prussik or ascender on the driver's harness to "fine tune" the distance. Neatly coil excess rope and stow it on the sled. This system makes it possible for self-rescue by preventing the driver from falling below the snowmobile, and providing an immediate safety line for self-belaying up to the sled in front. However, it's very difficult to keep from running over the rope, especially in rough terrain (sastrugi). Note: An experienced USAP field mountaineer prefers to run the safety rope from the rear driver to a 9-mm prussik wrapped on the tow rope just ahead of the protective tubing. This helps to not run over the rope and does not allow the driver to fall below the snowmobile. Remember: It is highly probable that the secondary riders and/or drivers will be the ones that will fall through a weakened snow bridge. 18.3 Travel Configurations Just as in roped-mountaineering, three snowmobiles roped together are safer than two. In BFC field testing, a roped-snowmobile train of three dramatically increased the ability to stop a fall quickly (two snowmobiles catching the third). Never travel with less than two snowmobiles and one sledge linked together, when traveling in crevassed areas. Depending on the size of your field party and the amount of cargo you're transporting, there are various travel configurations, which are illustrated on the following three pages. * [See figures ROPEDTR 4 and ROPEDTR 5 and ROPEDTR 7] 18.4 Snowmobile Crevasse Extraction -Rescue the driver. If necessary, the snowmobile can be tied off and extracted on another day. -Probe and mark off a safe working perimeter around the crevasse before extracting the snowmobile. - The crevasse edge must be thoroughly prepared before attempting a snowmobile extraction. Dig a ramp the width of the machine and deep enough to reach very hard snow. Place suitable edge protectors of wood or metal on the lip of the crevasse; tie them off so they don't fall in. These will minimize rope drag during the hauling. -Your main anchor must be large deadman-style anchors equalized and thoroughly "bomb-proof." -A pulley system can be set up on the tow rope, but it is preferable to set the pulley system on an alternate rope (static rope is best) that can be belayed separately as a backup. The snowmobile tow rope can also be secured to a separate anchor for a backup, if necessary. Prussiks should be heavy duty (8-mm is the minimum). -Before hauling, put the snowmobile in neutral gear, or cut the variator belt so that the tracks can turn. Snow and ice may need to be cleared from the tracks to free them. -If possible, raise the snowmobile's back end first. -Position a person on the crevasse edge for communication and observation. If you have enough people, position another person in the crevasse. This person can ensure that the ski is straight, and that the track can spin. Secure this person to a safety rope anchored separately to one side of the main anchor. Use three people pulling on a 6:1 pulley system to extract the snowmobile. Or, use snowmobiles to help pull it out. Snowmobile tracks should be pre-packed, and the pull path must be free of anchors and ropes. See the diagram on the following page. * [See figure ROPEDTR 6] 18.5 Rescue Equipment The following gear should be carried by each member of a field party travelling in crevassed areas. Equipment carried in the crevasse rescue bag is to be used in addition to the personal gear carried by each individual. A listing of the equipment in a crevasse rescue bag appears in Appendix E. Personal Equipment (Each Person) 4 Prussiks: 2 Long and 2 Short 2 Slings: 1 Long and 1 Short 2 Pulleys 1 Figure-8 Descender 5 Carabiners 2 Locking Carabiners 1 Picket 1 Ice Axe 18.6 How To Travel With A Nansen Sled -When starting with a heavy sled load, have some slack in the tow-rope, and have someone rock the sled and push to help break the runners free. -Stop gradually so that the sled doesn't run into the back of the snowmobile. - The driver should look back frequently to ensure that the sled is tracking correctly, and those riding the sled are not being dragged by their bootlaces like fools in a cheap spaghetti western. -When not linked for crevasse travel, keep the tow ropes short to prevent wandering sleds. - Don't travel too fast. You'll damage equipment if your sled tips over. -Travel together as a team - don't get spread out too far. -Use rope brakes on the sled runners when they're needed. A braking snowmobile in the rear is a secure method for steep descents and for traverses. At times, you may need to belay sleds down steep, difficult slopes. - Sleds with handlebars and footbrakes are recommended on any trip where personnel will be riding on a sled. 18.7 How To Load a Nansen Sled The figures on the following two pages show a Nansen sled and how to distribute the cargo load. Additional points on loading a Nansen sled follow. -Position the heaviest items over a bridge of the sled and slightly toward the rear. -Use a cargo tank to contain the cargo. -Support fuel drums with a drum cradle positioned over two bridges. Two 55-gallon drums can be carried on a Nansen sled, secured by cargo straps. -Rock box platforms are available for large numbers of boxes. -Divide equipment among your sleds so that if a sled is lost in a crevasse accident, you'll still have food and water (and preferably a stove and fuel), shelter, and a radio on the remaining sleds. -Place a Scott tent, pointed forward, on top of the loaded cargo tank, along with bundles of flags and a shovel. The crevasse rescue bag goes on top of all of this. -Lash loads down tightly using rope and cargo straps. Carry spare rope, cargo straps and bungees on the snowmobile. -Each person should have a sleeping kit consisting of a sleeping bag, a Thermarest, and an Ensolite pad. Carry the sleeping kit in a cargo bag. If you're using mountaineering tents (VE-25), the tents should go in the cargo bag, along with the stakes. * [See figures ROPEDTR 8 and ROPEDTR 9] -Always take a deep field survival bag and radios on day trips away from the main camp. Deep-field survival bags are available from the BFC . -Carry personal items in a pack or duffel: Spare Clothing Goggles Camera Thermos Food Sun Cream Personal Mountaineering Equipment. - Use colored webbing or tape to identify each person's gear. The orange "drag" bag issued in Christchurch carries securely on sled handle bars by the bag's shoulder strap. This makes a good personal bag in the field. Chapter 19 Glacier Travel with Heavy Machinery -Use extreme caution when travelling in a vehicle in glaciated terrain. -There is no practical system that allows vehicles (other than snowmobiles) to be safeguarded in the event of a crevasse fall. -Vehicles should only be used on predetermined safe routes. Go around crevassed areas, leaving a wide margin of safety. -If your field work requires travel through glaciated areas, use rigorous research, interviews, and investigation to determine any previous history of the route. Many "new" routes have an interesting and sometimes disastrous history. -Before committing heavy equipment to a route in unknown terrain, reconnoiter the route first by aircraft, and then by snowmobiles and sledges. -Always carry survival gear in the cab of the vehicle. It's a good idea to also carry a spare set of clothing, in case fuel or other liquids leak onto your clothes. Wear a climbing harness to facilitate a quick rescue. -If a vehicle breaks through a small crevasse, continue driving forward and the tracks may climb out of the crevasse. -If you fall into a crevasse with a vehicle, kill the engine immediately to prevent carbon monoxide buildup in the crevasse, and subsequent carbon monoxide poisoning. Chapter 20 Antarctic Navigation Land navigation in Antarctica has undergone a dramatic change over the past several years due to the increased availability of Global Positioning System (GPS) coverage and equipment. While GPS is a valuable resource to field parties, it should not be relied upon as the sole method of navigation. There are several methods to plot position and navigate in the event a GPS is unavailable. Magnetic compasses, sun compasses, sextants, and dead reckoning are all valuable tools to the Antarctic traveler, but they each have their drawbacks. Prior to your field deployment, you should choose the navigational methods that best suit your location and learn how to use them. You won't have time to figure it out in the field - you can't afford to be wrong while you're learning on the job. 20.1 Global Positioning System There are still some problems with using GPS in the field. Coverage at the higher latitudes is limited to certain, yet predictable, hours of the day. At times accuracy is diminished by the low incident angles of the satellites to the horizon. In addition, parties using GPS have reported interruption of service for as long as 72 hours at a time when the system was down for maintenance. Before planning to use GPS, use the software provided with your system to check availability of coverage at your expected location. If GPS is a part of your work in the field, you will likely have to plan your work day around the "windows" of satellite coverage. 20.2 Magnetic Compasses Magnetic compasses must be modified for use in polar latitudes by re-weighting the needle. As the compass gets closer to the South Pole, the south-seeking end of the needle is pulled downward toward the earth and will drag on its enclosure unless the proper nonmagnetic counterweight (copper wire) is added to the north-seeking end. Field parties must be careful of localized magnetic variations. On Ross Island, for example, magnetic compasses are unusable because there is so much iron in the rock. Likewise, compasses are affected by the metal in vehicles. Bearings must be taken well away from such disturbing influences. Navigation with magnetic compass over long distances is difficult because the magnetic variation (the difference between magnetic and true north) is so high, and changes significantly over short distances. Field parties may elect to travel by using a Grid North system (see the "Grid North" section below), versus a Magnetic or True North system. 20.3 Grid North Grid North is an artificially-convened reference direction which is taken to be parallel to the Greenwich Meridian. The North/South Grid Lines run parallel to each other and do not converge at the poles (see chart on the following page). * [See figure NAV 1] By contrast, meridians of longitude converge so sharply near the poles that expressing headings with respect to True North becomes impractical. The VXE-6, as well as other agencies, circumvent this problem by using Grid North's constant reference direction. This is not only practical for the aviator, but can also greatly simplify matters for the land traveler using a magnetic compass. For locations south of the equator, the following rules apply: Easterly Longitudes Grid direction = True direction + Longitude of your camp True direction = Grid direction - Longitude of your camp Westerly Longitudes Grid direction = True direction - Longitude of your camp True direction = Grid direction + Longitude of your camp Note: When giving a Field Weather Observation, wind direction must always be given in relation to Grid North. Sun compasses are an accurate way to determine bearings. Sextants (in conjunction with an artificial horizon) are a good way to fix your position. Both methods require an accurate chronometer and extensive knowledge on how to use navigational tables to get good results. Chapter 21 Search and Rescue Search and Rescue (SAR) in Antarctica is a joint effort between the United States and New Zealand programs. Rescues are coordinated through the McMurdo Operations (Mac Ops) center using personnel and equipment from both programs. Rescues will be initiated upon request, or if a field party fails to respond to McMurdo or communicate with anyone for 72 hours. Since most rescues will use VXE-6 fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters, weather delays may be significant in the event a rescue is launched. Parties in remote locations should be prepared for a substantial wait before help arrives. When faced with any emergency, two simple rules apply: 1. Take whatever immediate actions are necessary to preserve life or prevent further injuries. 2. Then stop and think things over. The first rule ensures that members of the party are not endangered unnecessarily. You cannot afford to have more victims than you already have. The second rule suggests you take an inventory of your situation, including the assets available (check the listing of survival cache and hut locations in Appendix B to see if any are nearby) and the skills of your people - then come up with a plan. Above all else you must Think Before You Act! Chapter 22 Basic Guidelines For All Groups Returning From The Field 22.1 Housing Assignments Personnel returning from the field will receive housing assignments at the Chalet. After-hours arrivals can pick up an envelope (with their room number and key in it) taped to the door inside the Chalet. If you arrive unexpectedly, you can sleep in the science "bunk room." 22.2 Equipment Return 22.2a Berg Field Center (BFC) -Please empty your designated "cage space." Return all of your field equipment to the BFC. -Clean your stoves, using the upstairs BFC sink. -Wash all the items in your kitchen box and make sure all items are accounted for. A list of contents is attached to the top of the box. -Please identify any damaged or torn equipment by tagging it. If equipment does not work, such as thermos' that don't keep liquids warm, etc., please mark them so they can be retrograded! -Sign the BFC Capital Equipment Custody cards for returned BFC capital equipment. -Return all unused food to the food room. -Only groups that been funded for a consecutive season may winter-over equipment in McMurdo. -Winter-over equipment must be boxed in a tri-wall that is clearly marked with your science number and the date. An inventory of what is in the box must be given to the BFC Supervisor. 22.2b Crary Science and Engineering Center (CSEC) It is the responsibility of the Principal Investigator (PI) to ensure that all work spaces used by the project in the CSEC are left in clean condition and that all equipment is returned to inventory. 22.2c Cargo Line All materials stored on the Science Cargo Line must be secured in a box or crate, and then tied with rope to the cargo line pallets. Coordinate storage location with the laboratory staff. Space is unlimited (within reason, of course). 22.2d Field Camps Return all capital equipment and excess laboratory supplies to McMurdo; check them in with the laboratory staff. Winter-over supplies should be stored neatly and an inventory list provided to the laboratory staff. Sweep and decontaminate laboratory spaces. Retrograde all waste products to the appropriate departments in McMurdo. Note: If your project is not funded for next year, you must retrograde all personal research gear and/or turn over materials to the Laboratory General Stock. Exceptions must be authorized by NSF. 22.2e Science Construction Support Return any checked-out items and/or portable shelters or structures, such as Polarhavens, etc. 22.2f Mechanical Equipment Center (MEC) -Return MEC equipment. If you're not physically returning equipment, indicate where the equipment is located (i.e., in the cargo system, or at a remote site). This includes all spare parts. -Sign the MEC Capital Equipment Custody card for returned MEC capital equipment. -Identify any damaged or broken equipment, including dead lead-acid batteries, waste fuel or oil, and skidoo tracks. -Only investigators who have been funded for a consecutive season may winter-over equipment in the field. -When using MEC science support pool vehicles, do not abandon them at the ice runway or Williams Field. Use the proper Terminal Operations vehicles for departure. If special use is approved by the NSF for transportation to the point of departure, please arrange to have the vehicle returned to the MEC. 22.2g Radios and Weather Kits Return your radio and weather kits to the ET Shop and Weather Office in Building 165. 22.3 Cargo -Retrograde all of your samples and equipment on the vessel. If you want air retrograde, you must get approval from the NSF Representative on station. -After returning from the field, you must fill out retrograde forms at Science Cargo. -Weigh your retrograde boxes, and mark the weight and cube on each box. Science Cargo will assist you, but the primary responsibility for this task is yours. -Remember . . . You need a trans-shipment permit to take samples through New Zealand. This document must be filled out before leaving the United States for Antarctica. A copy of it must be on file with the Clothing Distribution Center (CDC) in Christchurch. -Remember . . . All pieces of electronic and technical gear need a U.S. Customs sticker on them before leaving the States. It is in your best interest to fill out this evaluation form on all your equipment so problems won't arise during re-entry. 22.4 Waste If you return from the field with solid waste, please dispose of the waste in the proper disposal receptacles. The BFC only takes care of waste returned on mid-season resupply flights. 22.5 Debriefing With ASA Staff If you have time before leaving McMurdo, talk with the supervisors of the various ASA Science Support departments about your season. It's very important for ASA support personnel to receive direct feedback about the equipment and services with which ASA is supplying you. 22.6 Support Evaluations Please fill out a support evaluation form before leaving McMurdo. Forms are available from the Administrative Coordinator at the Chalet. This evaluation is important to ASA to ensure grantees are receiving a high quality of support services. It is also an opportunity for you to express any concerns about the support you received this season. 22.7 Departing McMurdo Check with the Administrative staff in the Chalet for your scheduled departure date. Make sure to check the manifest for departure times. Turn In Your Room Key!! Appendix A Field Planning Aid Equipment Weight and Cube Tents WT/LBS CU Polar tent: 2-3 person with liner 78 15 and poles Bag of 18 stakes 20 2 Mountaineering tents: NF VE-25, and Sierra Designs-Stretch Dome 3-person with poles and fly 10 2 Mountaineering tent: NF Westwind 2-person with poles and fly 6 .1 5 Tarp for mountaineering tent 2 0.5 Stakes for mountaineering tent 4 1 Two Person Kitchen Box 52 LBS 2 CU 1 Each Basin, Plastic 1 Each Bottle/Can Opener 4 Each Bowls, Soup (Hard Plastic) 1 Each Bread Pan 1 Each Can Opener, Hand 2 Each Can Opener, P-38 20 Each Clothes Pins 1 Each Coffee Pot, Stainless 1 Each Cookset With 2 Pots 1 Each Cutting Board 1 Each Detergent 4 Each Dish Drying Cloths 4 Each Dish Washing Cloths 1 Roll Foil 4 Each Forks 1 Each Frying Pan, Teflon 2 Each Hand Soap 1 Packet Handi Wipes 2 Each Knives, Large 2 Each Knives, Paring 2 Each Knives, Steak 1 Each Ladle 1 Each Mirror 2 Each Mixing Bowls 4 Each Mugs, Plastic 2 Each Mugs, Thermo-Insulated 1 Each Pie Pan 4 Each Plates 2 Each Pot Holders 2 Each Pot Scrubbers 1 Each Pressure Cooker, 4-quart 1 Each Rubber Scraper 1 Each Sewing Kit 1 Each Snow Melting Pot, 10-quart 1 Each Spatula, Nylon 1 Each Sponge 1 Each Serving Spoon, Large 1 Each Serving Spoon, Perforated 1 Each Serving Spoon, Small 1 Each Strainer 4 Each Tablespoons 4 Each Teaspoons 1 Each Thermarest Repair Kit 1 Each Toaster, Stove Top 2 Each Tupperware Containers 1 Each Wire Whisk Four Person Kitchen Box 65 LBS 2 CU 1 Each Basin, Plastic 1 Each Bottle/Can Opener 8 Each Bowls, Soup (Hard Plastic) 1 Each Bread Pan 1 Each Can Opener, Hand 4 Each Can Opener, P-38 20 Each Clothes Pins 1 Each Coffee Pot, Stainless 1 Each Cookset With 3 Pots 1 Each Cutting Board 1 Each Detergent 6 Each Dish Drying Cloths 6 Each Dish Washing Cloths 1 Roll Foil 8 Each Forks 2 Each Frying Pans, Teflon 2 Each Hand Soap 2 Packet Handi Wipes 4 Each Knives, Dinner 1 Each Knives, Large 2 Each Knives, Paring 4 Each Knives, Steak 1 Each Ladle 1 Each Mirror 2 Each Mixing Bowls 8 Each Mugs, Plastic 4 Each Mugs, Thermo-Insulated 1 Each Pie Pan 8 Each Plates 2 Each Pot Holder 4 Each Pot Scrubber 1 Each Pressure Cooker, 4-quart 1 Each Rubber Scraper 1 Each Sewing Kit 1 Each Snow Melting Pot, 10-quart 2 Each Spatulas, Nylon 1 Each Sponge 1 Each Serving Spoon, Large 1 Each Serving Spoon, Perforated 1 Each Serving Spoon, Small 1 Each Strainer 8 Each Tablespoons 8 Each Teaspoons 1 Each Thermarest Repair Kit 1 Each Toaster, Stove Top 2 Each Tupperware Containers 1 Each Wire Whisk Basic Tool Kit 18 LBS 1 CU 1 Set Allen Key, Standard 1 Each Channel Lock 1 Each Crescent Wrench: 4", 8", 12" 4 Each Emery Paper: 2 Coarse, & 2 Fine 1 Each File: Flat & Round 1 Each Hacksaw with 3 Replacement Blades 1 Each Hammer, Claw 1 Set Jeweler's Screw Driver Set 4 Each Pliers: 1 Diagonal Cutter, 1 Needle Nose, 1 Slip Joint and Vice Grips 1 Each Razor Knife 1 Each Scissors 5 Each Screw Driver Sets: 2 Phillips Head, & 3 Slot Heads 1 Each Tape Measure 1 Roll Wire: 16 Gauge 1 Each Wonder Bars Snowmobile Tool Kit 6 LBS 1 CU 1 Set Allen Key, Metric 1 Each Carburetor Repair Kit, Mikuni 1 Each Electrical Contact File 1 Each Feeler Gauge 1 Each Extension Bar For Socket Set: 10.5" 1 Bottle Locktite 1 Each Magnetic Screwdriver Set 1 Each Reversible Rachet 4 Each Sockets, Metric: 10mm, 12mm, 13mm, 14mm 3 Each Sockets, Standard: 1/2", 7/16", 9/16", 3/8" 1 Each Spark Plug Wrench 1 Each Universal Joint for Socket Set 4 Each Wrenches, Metric: 10mm, 12mm, 13mm, 14mm 3 Each Wrenches, Standard: 1/2", 7/16", 9/16" Stoves WT/LBS CU Coleman: White Gas, 2-Burner 7 2 Coleman: Propane, 2-Burner 7 Optimus 111 2 0.25 MSR WhisperLte 1 0.25 MSR XGK 1.5 0.25 Petroleum Naptha (White Gas) 7 1 (1 gallon can) Propane: Disposable Cartridge 2 1 (4.24 lb./gallon) 25 LB Cylinder 41 4 100 LB Cylinder 196 5 200 LB Cylinder 367 13 Fire Extinguishers, Ansul 2.5 LBS 5 1 Communications WT/LBS CU Transworld PRC 1099 25 2 SCOM 130 HF, Complete Kit 25 2 MX300 Motorola, Handheld 3 0.25 Ice Drilling Tools WT/LBS CU Kovacs Auger, Bit & 1 Extension 3 1 Each Additional Extension 2 1 Jiffy Powerhead 5 2 Sipre Ice Auger Kit: 4-1/2" OD 90 4 for 3' Core, 5 Ext. for 6-m Drilling Depth Sipre Ice Auger Extension Set 80 5 (21 each -- 1-m Ext.) Motor for Auger, 3/4" Drill for Sipre Auger (8.5A - 110V) 21 2 Cobra Drill 63 10 PICO Ice Core Kits, 20m 90 5 PICO Ice Core Kits, 50m 208 15 Chisel Bar, 48" Long 7 1 Hole Melter, Glycol Loop 450 Power Equipment WT/LBS CU Generators, Mogas .65 kW 55 1.5 1.4 kW 85 3 2.2 kW 130 4 3.5 kW 180 6 4.0 kW 200 8 5.0 kW 225 8 Generators, JP8 6.0 kW 510 12.0 kW 750 17.5 kW 1200 Herman Nelson Heater 272 16 Battery, 12-Volt 50 1 Chain Saw 50 4 Dive Compressor 250 2 Transportation WT/LBS CU Snowmobiles: Alpine II 765 175 Alpine I 642 115 Elan 250 285 78 Cheyenne 503 350 100 Polaris ATV 450 120 Nansen Sled (with Cargo Tank) 75 40 Maudheim Sled 650 100 Jerry Can (metal), 5 Gal w/Mogas 50 3 Jerry Can (metal), 5 Gal w/DFA 53 3 Skidoo Oil, Case Lot (12 Qts/Case) 25 1 55-gallon drum (empty) 70 12 55-gallon drum (DFA/JP8) 450 2 55-gallon drum (Mogas) 400 12 55-gallon drum (antifreeze) 500 12 Flomax pump 45 4 Hazardous Cargo Examples of Examples of Hazardous Goods Hazardous Chemicals Automotive (Lead/Acid) Batteries Catalytic Heaters Acetone Compressed Gases Benzene Explosives Carbonice (Dry Ice) Fire Extinguishers Chloroform Flare Pistol Ammunition Ethanol Flares, Roadside Ether Generators Formaldehyde, 37% Herman Nelson Heaters Formalin, 10% Jiffy Powerhead Glutaraldehyde J-8 Fuel Hydrochloric Acid Kerosene Isopropyl Alcohol Lithium Batteries Methyl Alcohol Matches Methyl Ethyl Ketone Meta-paste Nitric Acie Mogas (Gasoline) Perchloric Acie, 60-62% Propane Radioactives Propane Torch Kit Sulfuric Acie Scuba Tanks WD-40 Snowmobiles White Gas Stoves: Coleman 2-Burner - Coleman Propane - MSR WhisperLite & XKG - Optimus 111 Appendix B Emergency Cache and Hut Locations Asgard Hut 77=80 35'S 161=80 36'E GRID 2C12 3-Person hut. Bratina Island Hut 78=80 01'S 165=80 32'E GRID 5J21 3 Huts. Limited food. Butter Point Camp 77=80 39'S 164=80 12'E 4-Person hut with emergency cache. Cape Adare 71=80 17'S 170=80 14'E Survival box in hut store. Limited food, stove, & fuel. Cape Bird 77=80 14'S 166=80 28'E GRID 1E5 6-Person hut. Cape Crozier Hut and Cache 77=80 30'S 169=80 40'E Partial provisions for 4. No radio. Hut located approximately 1,000' elevation, south of "The Knob" and south of the ice edge. Cache: Full provision for 6. Located 100' uphill from hut. Cape Evans Hut 77=80 38'S 166=80 25'E GRID 1E13 4-Person hut. Additional room for 10 people at nearby Historic Hut. Cape Roberts Hut 77=80 02'S 163=80 12'E GRID 6U1 2 -Person hut plus mess hut. Cape Royds Hut 77=80 33'S 166=80 10'E GRID 1C11 4-Person hut. Additional room for 10 people at nearby Historic Hut. Lake Bonney Cache 77=80 43'S 152=80 25'E Full provisions for 6, 30 person/days food. No radio. Cache located on southeastern shore of Lake Bonney, approximately 100' from lake. Lake Fryxell Hut and Jamesway 77=80 37'S 163=80 03'E GRID 2K13 Jamesway at S-008 camp and 4 - person hut on east end of the lake next to Canada Glacier. Lake Hoare Jamesway 77=80 38'S 162=80 57'E GRID 2J13 Partial provisions for 4 (no sleeping bags). Full food provisions in Jamesway. No radio. Jamesway located approximately 100' from Lake Hoare, near base of the Asgaard Mount Range. No survival cache box is established. Lake Miers Hut 78=80 06'S 163=80 50'E GRID 8E3 2-Person hut. Lake Vida Cache 77=80 20'S 162=80 00'E GRID 2E8 Full provisions for 6, 30 person/days food. No radio. Cache is located approximately 600' from lake on southwestern shore. Lower Wright Hut 77=80 26'S 162=80 37'E GRID 2I9 2-Person hut at west end of Lake Brownsworth. Mt. Erebus Hut 77=80 30'S 167=80 10'E GRID 1H11 Hut: Partial provisions for 3 (no sleeping bags), oxygen, radio during the summer. Located 1.5k north of the summit crater, 300m from the caldera rim. Cache: Full provisions for 6. Located 50 m from hut. Vanda Station 77=80 31'S 161=80 40'E GRID 2D11 10-Person station. Appendix C Time Line Chart (Example) This is a typical time schedule. Your actual schedule will vary depending on the experience and number of people in your group. Day 1 Arrive in McMurdo Station Orientation at Chalet Housing Assignment Days 2, 3, and 4 Science Meeting Pre-field Logistics: Fixed-Wing Operations Coordinator, Helicopter Coordinator, CSEC , MEC, BFC, Science Construction Radios Antarctic Driver's License Field Maintenance Training (MEC) BFC Gear Check and Sort Liquor Rations Food Planning and Packaging Day 5 Put-in Load Planning and Packaging Resupply Planning and Packaging Turn in cargo to Science Cargo (LC-130) Days 6, 7, and 8 Survival Training and/or Shakedown Day 9 Put-in Load Planning and Packaging (continued) Turn in Hazardous Cargo to Appropriate Department Day 10 Package and Turn in Remaining Gear from Shakedown to Science Cargo (if LC-130 supported) Re-adjust, Add, Subtract, etc., Any Gear and/or Equipment from Shakedown Miscellaneous Last Minute Tasks Day 11 Put-In (Can take 1 or more days depending upon weather, aircraft, etc.) Day 12 In The Field until Pull-Out Pull-Out -- Back in McMurdo Day 1 Return Gear with you to your cage/BFC Housing Assignments Shower, Laundry, Buy NSF Rep a drink Day 2 BFC: End of Season Tasks* Day 3 Crary Lab: End of Season Tasks* Return Radios Return Weather Kits Return Equipment to MEC and Science Construction Support Day 4 Crary Lab: End of Season Task* (Continued) Day 5 Finish Crary Lab Tasks Debrief with ASA Staff Day 6 Support Evaluations Turn In Your Room Key Before Leaving! *Refer to Chapter 22: Basic Guidelines for All Groups Returning from the Field for details. Appendix D Conversion Tables Temperature Conversions A Fahrenheit degree is smaller than a Celsius (centigrade) degree. One Fahrenheit degree is 5/9ths of a Celsius degree. To convert Fahrenheit degrees into Celsius: F=80 - 32 x 5 / 9 To convert Celsius into Fahrenheit degrees: C=80 x 9 / 5 + 32 The freezing point of water is 32=80F or 0=80C The boiling point of water is 212=80F or 100=80C Metric Equivalents Linear Measurements -- To Convert, Multiply By: Centimeters to Inches 0.3937 Inches to Centimeters 2.540 Meters to Feet 3.281 Feet to Meters 0.3048 Meters to Yards 1.094 Yards to Meters 0.9144 Kilometers to Miles 0.6214 Miles to Kilometers 1.609 Meters to Fathoms 3.2808 Fathoms to Meters 1.8288 Square Measurements -- To Convert, Multiply By: 1 square centimeter to 1 square inch 0.1550 1 square inch to 1 square centimeter 6.452 1 square meter to 1 square foot 10.76 1 square foot to 1 square meter 0.0929 1 square meter to 1 square yard 1.196 1 square yard to 1 square meter . 0.835 1 square kilometer to 1 square mile 0.3861 1 square mile to 1 square kilometer 2.590 Measures of Volume -- To Convert, Multiply By: Grams to Ounces 0.03527 Ounce to Grams 28.35 Grams to Pounds 0.002205 Pounds to Grams 453.6 Kilograms to Pounds 2.205 Pounds to Kilograms 0.4536 Kilograms to Tons 0.0009852 Tons to Kilograms 1016.0 Pints to Liters 0.5682 Liters to Gallons 0.22 Gallons to Liters 4.546 Distances 1 Knot 1 Nautical Mile per hour 1 Nautical Mile 1853.2 Meters 1.15 Statute Miles 1 Statute Mile 1609.3 Meters 0.868 Nautical Miles 1 Kilometer 0.621 Statute mile 0.54 Nautical Mile (1,000 meters) Liquid Volumes 1 U.S. Gallon 0.83 Imperial Gallon 3.785 Liters 1 Imperial Gallon 1.2 U.S. Gallon 4.545 Liters 1 Liter 0.246 U.S. Gallon 0.219 Imperial Gallon Appendix E First Aid and Survival Kits First Aid Kit -- Group 1 Each Book: "Medicine For Mountaineering" 1 Each Airway Tube 1 Each Ace Bandage 1 Bottle Aspirin 1 Each Bactricin Ointment 30 Each Band-Aids 1 Each Blistex Salve 8 Each Butterfly Bandages 1 Packet Cotton 1 Each Decongestant 4 Each Dressings, 4 x 7 1 Each Eye Dressing Kit 1 Bottle Foot Powder 2 Each Gauze Bandages 1 Packet Moleskin 1 Bottle Non-Aspirin 6 Each Petroleum Gauze 30 Each Providone Prep Pads 1 Packet Razor Blades Quantity Safety Pins 1 Pair Scissors 1 Each Skullcap 1 Each Sunscreen 4 Packets Surgical Sponges, 2 x 2 2 Rolls Surgical Tape 1 Each Thermometer 1 Box Throat Lozenges 4 Each Triangular Bandages 1 Each Tweezers 1 Each Wire Splint First Aid Kit -- Individual 1 Each Booklet: "First Aid Quick Information" 1 Each Ace Bandage 10 Packets Aspirin 1 Each Bactricin Ointment 15 Each Band-Aids 1 Each Blistex Salve 4 Each Butterfly Bandages 10 Packets Decongestant 2 Each Dressings, 4 x 7 1 Each Eye Dressing Kit 1 Each Gauze Bandages 1 Packet Moleskin 10 Packets Non-Aspirin 3 Each Petroleum Gauze 6 Each Providone Prep Pads 1 Packet Razor Blades Quantity Safety Pins 1 Pair Scissors 1 Each Sunscreen 2 Packet Surgical Sponges, 2 x 2 1 Roll Surgical Tape 1 Each Thermometer 1 Box Throat Lozenges 1 Each Triangular Bandage 1 Each Tweezers 1 Each Wire Splint Survival Bag -- Helicopter and Sea Ice Groups 2 Each Sleeping Bags 2 Each Short Ensolite Pads 1 Each Westwind Tent 10 Each Tent Stakes 6 Each Ice Screws 2 Each Snow Flukes 1 Each Collapsible Snow Shovel 1 Each Snowsaw 1 Each 4-lb Sledge hammer 1 Each Balaclava 1 Pair Socks 1 Pair Bearpaws 1 Pair Mittens, Wool Stove Box Containing the Following Items: 1 Each MSR WhisperLite Stove 2 Quarts White Gas 1 Box Matches 1 Each Cookset 2 Each Cup 2 Each Spoon 1 Each Pocket Knife 2 Each Candles 1 Each First Aid Kit, Commercial 1 Each Signal Kit 1 Each Survival Manual 1 Each Game, Book or Novelty Item Quantity Parachute Cord Quantity Toilet Paper 6-Person-Days of Food 6 Each Mountain House Dehydrated Meals 3 Bags Trail Mix 6 Each Chocolate Bars 6 Each Cup of Soup 12 Each Tea Bags 12 Each Granola Bars 12 Each Cocoa Mix Survival Bags - Deep Field Groups* 2 Each Sleeping Bags 1 Each Westwind Tent 1 Each MSR WhisperLite Stove 1 Quart White Gas 1 Box Matches 1 Each Snow Fluke * Deep Field Groups must supplement this issue with food and cooking items from their issued equipment. Crevasse Rescue Bag 4 Pickets: 2 Long and 2 Short 1 Pair Ascenders 4 8mm Prussiks 1 Belay Plate 4 Carabiners 4 Locking Carabiners 4 Slings: 2 Medium and 2 Long 1 Ice Axe Spare 1 Hammer 6 Ice Screws 1 Come-a-long 1 Shovel 1 Snowsaw 1 11 mm (or larger) 50 meter Static Rope 1 11 mm x 50 meter Climbing Rope 1 Crevasse Ladder (Optional) Appendix F National Science Foundation Policy on Field Safety in Antarctica United States Antarctic Program (USAP) scientific and operational teams which are deployed to sites remote from USAP main stations shall conduct their activities in a safe manner. The field party leader shall be responsible for the conduct of all team members in the field, and shall ensure that each member of the team is familiar with the risks involved and proficient in dealing with them. Background The USAP has long recognized that operating a scientific research enterprise in Antarctica cannot be risk-free, but rather the activities must be conducted within an acceptable level of risk. Historically, the Office of Polar Programs/National Science Foundation (OPP/NSF) has focussed on providing sufficient equipment and logistical support to field parties in remote areas, and has relied on the Principal Investigator (PI) in science field parties and the team supervisor/officer in operations/support field parties to define the levels of acceptable risks for remote field party operations. OPP will continue to improve field party support logistics and will review operational plans of field party leaders so that both the team leader and OPP are satisfied that significant field safety concerns are appropriately addressed. Currently, the USAP civilian support contractor provides one-to-three day field safety training and has developed and maintains a field manual for guiding field party operations in Antarctica. These training courses are "shakedown" excursions to familiarize participants with the issued equipment and typical procedures used in the field, and are not intended to develop expert skills in inexperienced field team members. For science field parties, the USAP recommends that PIs select suitable field safety experts for their specific teams when the potential risks to those teams is significant (e.g, deep field deployments, traversing crevasses areas or mountainous terrain). The support contractor also can provide field safety experts to scientific field parties for short periods, when requested, and maintains a list of field safety experts experienced in antarctic field deployments. In many cases, deployments to field sites remote from permanent stations do not entail significant risk (e.g., "established" seasonal camps in the Dry Valleys) or the risks are not associated with actual field deployment (e.g., sea ice diving camps), and specific field safety experts would not be necessary. It is strongly recommended that field party members have basic first-aid training, and at least one member have more advanced life support skills (e.g., paramedic, emergency medical technician) if the remote field deployment warrants. Policy Implementation In the initial proposal, the PI should determine the safety requirements associated with remote field deployment and include those needs in the proposal's supporting information and budget submission. If the PI chooses to include a field safety expert with experience in polar or remote mountainous regions on the field team, that individual should be included in the staffing submission. The PI can obtain names of candidates with appropriate field safety experience from other investigators or from the USAP support contractor. If a field safety expert is requested from the civilian contractor within the proposal/grant operational support request, it will be evaluated along with other logistics support and will be provided, resources permitting. If warranted, the USAP may assign an independent field safety expert to teams that are unprepared to address field related safety concerns, or delay deployment until such support staff is available. For construction field parties, the Field Safety and Training Program (FSTP) staff will review field deployment plans and establish field safety requirements for the field party. NSF/OPP recognizes that the field safety program should continue to be flexible. The hiring of a field safety expert may make little sense for some science groups. Other field parties may require specific skills for only a short time, and will be able to call upon the FSTP for that assistance. Nevertheless, OPP recommends that the PI designate a specific experienced person responsible for the safety of the field team other than him/herself, so that both the scientific goals and the safety of the field party are addressed throughout field deployment. During the merit review process, NSF/OPP will review the work plan to ensure that field safety concerns are addressed and adequate resources are included in the budget submission. If the proposal is funded, the PI or designated field safety leader may be asked to prepare documentation outlining how the field work will be carried out. That person may be expected to deploy to McMurdo Station in advance of the rest of the field party, in order to check-out field equipment, to review field safety plans in detail with the support contractor's FSTP staff, and to assist FSTP staff in tailoring the practical field training/ shakedown program to the specific needs of the field party team. The balance of the field party still will be required to successfully complete the FSTP's one-to-three day shakedown course prior to field deployment. USAP field safety experts will also advise NSF on the preparedness of field parties prior to field deployment, and may be asked to advise NSF on specific situations that arise in the field. Each field party's designated field safety leader shall submit an "end-of-season" report, which includes such things as execution of original field plan, technical problems that were encountered and their solutions, performance of issued equipment, and recommendations for improvement of the field safety program. The support contractor's FSTP staff will assimilate this information into their field safety program and into the subsequent revisions of the USAP Field Manual so that field safety and survival skills that are developed and refined throughout the program can be retained and be of use to future field activities. The USAP's support contractor plays a pivotal role in capturing and disseminating practical safety and survival information for field party use. This can best be done through the development of a close, cooperative relationship with field teams and occasional direct involvement with field activities. Appendix G Glossary Terms and Acronyms ACL (Allowable Cabin Load) Payload of aircraft. Calculations based upon take-off (wheels/skis), landing restrictions, range, weather, fuel requirements, etc. Airdrop Method of delivering supplies by parachute from an aircraft in flight. Apple (a.k.a. Tomato or Melon) Structure or shelter made of red colored fiberglass, helicopter-transportable, segmented, and expandable (longer in length). Manufactured by Igloo Satellite Cabin in Australia. Bag Drag In preparation for field deployment, all passengers must weigh in with their baggage to accurately determine aircraft load. Usually held a few hours before the scheduled departure. Beaker Vernacular for Scientist. Berg Field Center (BFC) Building 160 (also known as the Field Party Processing Center). The central location for issues of field equipment such as tents, sleds, sleeping bags, etc. Also the base of operations for the Field Safety Training Program (FSTP). Bumped Referring to cargo or passengers that is/are removed from a flight due to weight restrictions or other considerations. CDC Acronym for the "Clothing Distribution Center" in Christchurch, New Zealand. Chalet Building 167- the USAP administration and operations center housing the offices of the NSF Representative(s) and ASA Resident Manager, as well as the administrative staff. The central location for referral, information, and assistance to Grantees. CHC Acronym for "Christchurch," New Zealand (a.k.a. "Cheech" or "Chi- Chi"). CONUS Acronym for the Continental United States. Crack A fissure or fracture in the sea ice produced by the stresses of wind, wave, tidal, mechanical, or thermal forces. Crary Lab Housed in Building 001, this is the scientific facility operated by ASA (currently under final construction). Also known as CSEC (Crary Science and Engineering Center) Dash Two Military hazardous cargo certification form, DD 1387-2. Dive Locker Located in Building 144. It houses research diving equipment for issue, including an air compressor for filling scuba tanks. DMX Acronym for the "Data and Message Exchange." A store-and-forward electronic-mail handling system located in Building 165. DNF Acronym for "Do Not Freeze." ECW Clothing Acronym for "Extreme Cold Weather" Clothing. FAA Acronym for "First Available Aircraft." Field Camps A fixed location used as a base camp for the pursuit of various scientific endeavors. It often includes such amenities as a toilet, heated shelter, etc. Field Party A group of Grantees pursuing their scientific interests in the field. Fish Hut A temporary movable shelter used on the sea ice. Fixed-Wing Describes aircraft such as the LC-130 Hercules or DHC-6/300 Twin-Otter, as opposed to rotary-wing aircraft, which are helicopters. Flagged Route A marked route that has been determined safe for vehicle travel by qualified personnel. FMO Acronym for the "Force Medical Officer" (NSFA). He/she is responsible for administering medical and health care in Antarctica, including medical screening for travel to Antarctica. FOCC Acronym for "Field Operations Communications Center." Freshies Vernacular for fresh fruit or vegetables. FST (F-Stop) Acronym for the "Field Safety Training Program;" a series of training courses emphasizing survival in the field. HazMats (Hazardous Materials) Any and all explosives, flammable liquids and solids, oxidizers, organic peroxides, corrosive materials, compressed gases, poisons, irritating materials, etiologic agents, radioactive materials, and other regulated materials. These items require proper packaging and certification prior to air transport, and may have passenger or other cargo compatibility limitations. Herbie Term used to describe a storm with fierce, blowing wind and/or snow, causing outdoor activities to be unpleasant. Herc or Hercules Turbo-prop, wheeled cargo aircraft C-130), or ski-equipped (LC-130) cargo aircraft. Hourlies Pertains to communicating local weather observations every 60 minutes, beginning 6 hours prior to scheduled aircraft departure and recurring "hourly" until after the aircraft lands. Huey A twin-engine helicopter, UH-1N, operated by the Antarctic Development Squadron Six (VXE-6). They are used to support grantees in the McMurdo region, and occasionally at remote locations. Ice Edge The boundary between sea ice and open sea at any given time and place. Jamesway A portable, rigid-frame, insulated tent similar to a small quonset hut. Can be built to any length, though height and width are fixed. Jerry Cans Military 5-gallon containers used to transport liquids such as fuel, oil, or glycol. Jerry cans are not suitable for air transport of flammable liquids. JP-8 Type of fuel used for aircraft and in diesel applications such as generators, Caterpillar equipment, and Preways. This "single-fuel" replaces JP-4 (for aircraft use only) and DFA (Diesel Fuel, Arctic). Kilo Air A method of cargo shipment utilizing surface vessels from Port Hueneme, CA, to New Zealand, then delivered to McMurdo Station by air. Kovacs Auger An ice auger used to drill small-diameter holes in the sea ice to determine ice thickness. Mac Center Located in Building 165, the NSFA's air traffic control, flight following, and weather information facility. Mac Channel Regularly scheduled trans-Pacific military cargo flights. Mac Ops Call sign for the Field Operations Communications Center. Mac Relay Located in Building 165, the NSFA's radio and teletype room that coordinates field party check-ins, message traffic, and other data and message information. Mac Sideband See MAC Relay, above. MCC or MCC Central Acronym for the "Movement Control Center" Terminal Operations cargo facility in McMurdo staffed by ASA and New Zealand Army personnel. MEC Acronym for the "Mechanical Equipment Center" in Building 58. The MEC is the issue point for small generators, snowmobiles, batteries, light vehicles, etc. Melt Pool An area on the ice sheet that has sub-surface melting. An ice lens is usually present over the meltwater, giving the impression that it is solid. Many factors, including the amount of wind-borne dust from around McMurdo and ablation of snow cover caused by vehicle traffic, increases the solar absorption on the sea ice in front of McMurdo and immediately north of Hut Point. T his area has historically deteriorated first and rapidly. Ice at outlying locations may be substantially better. Mogas Acronym for "Motor Automotive Gasoline." NSFA Acronym for "Naval Support Force, Antarctica." OAE Acronym for "Old Antarctic Explorer;" title given to program veterans. OEA Acronym for "Oil, Engine, Arctic." A type of extreme cold weather engine lubricating oil. Pallet A portable platform used for handling/moving materials and packages. The pallets used for C-130's are made of aluminum and balsa wood, designated by the military as 463L pallets, and lock into place on the cargo deck. Palletize To place onto a pallet. Typically, for an LC-130 field operation, all outgoing cargo is palletized. For larger field camps, all camp materials are gathered and staged at a central location, then palletized all at once in a cooperative "palletization party." Pax Vernacular for passengers. PI Acronym for the "Principle Investigator." The senior representative of a science group. Polarhaven Tent-type shelter with a framework of aluminum tubing and insulated fabric cover, with either an insulated fabric or wood floor. Pressure Ridge Ice broken by pressure and thrust up into a chaotic pattern of elevations and depressions. Preway Non-portable type of space heater that uses JP-8 for fuel. Typically used to heat Jamesways and fish huts. Purging Fuel Either a diesel or kerosene with a flashpoint above 141o that is used to rinse out more flammable fuels out of containers and power equipment Recce Aerial reconnaissance. Performed by LC-130 aircraft when a potential landing site for put-in may be questionable. Some researchers take advantage of the recce flight to view areas of investigation to determine safe traverse routes, and/or to airdrop materials and supplies to reduce the put-in flight's cargo weight. Recompression Chamber Housed in Building 85 (until Phase III of the Crary Lab is completed), this facility adjoins NSFA Medical (Building 142). It houses a chamber for treatment of pressure-related diving accidents and other conditions where hyperbaric oxygen therapy is indicated, such as carbon monoxide poisoning, gas gangrene, etc. The Chamber is operated by ASA personnel under NSFA Medical supervision. Retrograde To return cargo from the field to McMurdo Station, or from McMurdo to destinations North. Usually in the reverse order of its initial deployment. Sastrugi Hard drifts of wind-carved snow. These drifts can reach 6 feet tall, and accordingly can affect overland travel. Sea Ice Ice which forms on the surface of the sea in polar ocean areas. Science Cargo Formerly known as USAP Cargo, this ASA work center requests processes all Grantee cargo. Science Cargo is located in Buildings 73 and 193. Shakedown An overnight trip to test equipment, radios, sleds, snowmobiles, tents, etc. prior to deep-field deployment. Sipre Auger An ice-coring auger used to sample sea ice to determine it's composition. Space A Acronym for "Space Available." Refers to the program of allowing personnel (equitable between military and civilian) to utilize available aircraft space for a turn-around flight to South Pole or for a helicopter excursion. Squirrel Aerospatiale AS-350B helicopter, this is a sub-contracted helicopter that provides occasional support to the USAP. Starlifter Wheeled jet aircraft operated by the U.S. Air Force used for cargo deliveries from Christchurch, N.Z., to McMurdo during early summer operations; usually early October to mid-November, as well as Mac Channel missions. lso known as a C-141. Terminal Operations Also known as Term Ops or TMO, the central cargo facility in McMurdo. See also MCC Cargo. Tide Crack Tide cracks occur in fast ice when the tidal action lifts the sea ice above or below the level at which it is shorebound. T-Site A transmitter facility in Building 184, operated by the NSFA Electronics Division. I t's located on a hill between McMurdo and Scott Base. USAP Cargo The former name (used in past seasons) of Science Cargo. VFR Acronym for "Visual Flight Rules" . Required for helicopter operations. Winfly Vernacular for the winter fly-in. Early season operations commence in mid-August, primarily to bring in support personnel to the Antarctic in preparation of the coming season. Winter-Over Vernacular for the period from late February to early August. It's characterized by darkness and an absence of flight operations. ------------------------- END --------------------------------